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A COMPANION

THE GREEK TESTAMENT

AND

THE ENGLISH VERSION

BY PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D.

PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE ON REVISION

Wirn Facsimi_e ILLUSTRATIONS OF

Mss. anp Sranparp ΕἸΡΙΤΙΟΝΒ or THE New TESTAMENT

FOURTH EDITION, REVISED

NEW YORK AND LONDON HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS

19038

_ SATRER Mod

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by HARPER & BROTHERS,

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Copyright, 1885, by Harper & Broruers.

Copyright, 1887, by Harrer & ΒΕΟΤΗΕΕΒ.

All rights reserved.

TO THE

MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN REVISION COMMITTEE

IN REMEMBRANCE OF TEN YEARS OF HARMONIOUS CO-OPERATION

Medicated

BY THE AUTHOR

41499 7 Ὁ Ὁ .9

PREFACE.

A Manuat of Textual Criticism of the Greek Testament and its application to the English Version is a desidera- tum of our literature, and meets a demand which has been greatly stimulated and widely extended by the appearance of the new Revision.

This book has grown out of my studies in connection with the Revision Committee, and was prepared at the request of several fellow-Revisers and friends whose learn- ing and judgment I highly esteem. It embodies the sub- stance (thoroughly revised) of my Introduction to the American edition of Westcott and Hort’s Greek Testa- ment, and several additional chapters, besides important contributions from Bishop Lee, Professor Abbot, Dr. Hall, and Professor Warfield, which are acknowledged in the proper place. The last chapter contains a brief history and explanatory vindication of the joint work of the two Revision Companies, and fairly expresses, I believe, their general views on all essential points, with a preference for the American renderings where they differ from the English. An official report of the American Committee will appear after the revision of the Old Testament is completed.

I feel under special obligation to Dr. Ezra Abbot, of Cam- bridge, who has kindly aided me in correcting the proofs as they passed through the press, and suggested numerous _ improvements. In the department of textual criticism and

vI PREFACE.

microscopic accuracy, this modest and conscientious scholar is facile princeps in America, with scarcely a superior in Europe. Every member of the American Revision Com- mittee will readily assent to this cordial tribute.

The publishers deserve my thanks for their liberality in incurring the great expense of fac-simile illustrations of manuscripts and standard editions of the Greek Testament. Some of the former and all of the latter are entirely new, and add much to the interest of the book.

The extraordinary increase of biblical study, even among laymen, since the Revision of 1881, is one of the most en- couraging signs of the times, and of true progress. The New Testament is the greatest literary treasure of Christen- dom, and worthy of all the labor and study that can be bestowed upon it to make it clearer and dearer to the mind and heart of men.

I dedicate this book to my brother-Revisers as a memo- rial of the many happy days we spent together, from month to month and from year to year, in the noble work of improving the English version of the Word of God.

PHILIP SCHAFF. New York, August, 1883

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Tue call for a new edition of this Manual of Textual Criticism has made it my duty to give it a careful revision. The chief improvements are the corrected lists of MSS. (pp. 94, 101, 102, 133, 134), the additions to the literature (pp. 379, 524, etc.), and a number of changes in Appendixes I., IIL, and IV.

It is a pleasure to express my thanks for letters of ap- proval and encouragement from many of the most compe- tent judges." Those from English Revisers were especially

11 received such letters from nearly all the English Revisers, and a num- ber of Continental scholars—as Drs, von Gebhardt, then of Géttingen ; Dor- ner, Dillmann, and Weiss, of Berlin; Gregory, of Leipzig; Grimm, of Jena; Bertheau, of Hamburg; Reuss and Holtzmann, of Strassburg; Schiirer, of Giessen ; Doedes, of Utrecht; Godet, of Neuchatel, etc. The following re- markable letter from the octogenarian, Dr. Reuss, who possesses the largest collection of Greek Testaments, and furnished the basis for Dr. Hall’s list (Append. I.), will be read with interest.

“ Hochgeehrter Herr Professor : “ StRasenves, 3b ier. 156.

“Tch werde so eben in héchst angenehmer Weise iiberrascht durch das schéne Geschenk welches Sie mir bestimmt haben, und wofiir ich Sie bitte, meinen verbindlichsten Dank entgegenzunehmen. Ich sage Ihnen nicht, dass ich es mit Vergniigen lesen werde, denn ich habe es bereits ganz gelesen, und zwar in einem Exemplar, das ich der Giite des Herrn Dr. Isaac Hall in Philadelphia verdanke. Und ich sage Ihnen, dass, trotzdem mir vieles in Ihrem Buche, wie natiirlich, liingst bekannt ist, es fiir mich einen reichen Schatz neuer Belehrung enthiilt theils in den Mittheilungen iiber die vorhandene englische Literatur, die uns Continental-Europiiern ja fast ganz unbekannt bleibt, theils namentlich durch die griindliche Darstellung alles dessen was sich auf die Revision der engl. Bibel-Ueber-

Vill PREFACE.

gratifying, as I could not avoid discussing the delicate re- lations of the two Committees and the merits of the Ameri-

setzung bezieht, wovon mir bisher nur ein etwas schwaches Echo durch die HH. Hort u. Westcott zugekommen ist. Es ist iiberhaupt fiir uns deutsche Gelehrte beschiimend zu sehen, wie man jenseits des Kanals und des Oceans so genau und verstiindnissvoll mit der deutschen Bibel-Litera- tur bekannt ist, wihrend wir selbst kaum den zwanzigsten Theil (vielleicht noch weniger) nur der Biichertitel kennen, die dort in diesem Fache er- scheinen, geschweige dass sie uns zu Handen kiimen. Aber es hat Thr Werk, so wie das kiirzlich erschienene bibliographische von Herrn Hall, das ich ebenfalls seiner Giite verdanke, einen sehr deprimirenden Ein- druck auf mich gemacht. Sie wissen, dass ich mich des Besitzes einer bedeutenden Sammlung griechischer N. T. erfreue, und dass ich auch ein bischen stolz darauf bin und gross damit gethan habe. Nun die beiden Werke, das Hall’sche und das Ihrige, haben mich in dieser Hinsicht Be- scheidenheit gelehrt, und nicht nur dieses, sondern auch muthlos gemacht, denn wenn ich auch die Kosten nicht scheute, wiirde mir doch jetzt in meinem 80sten Jahre die Zeit mangeln, meine Liicken (die ungeahnten !) auszufiillen. Ich habe desswegen Herrn Hall den Vorschlag gemacht, von meiner ‘ Bibliotheca N. T. Gr.’ eine englische, durch ihn vervollstindigte, Ausgabe zu veranstalten und ihm dazu meinerseits Supplemente angeboten, da meine Sammlung seit 1872 sich bedeutend vermehrt hat.

“ Was nun Ihr Geschenk betrifft so versteht es sich von selbst, dass ich Ihr Exemplar, mit Ihrer Handschrift, behalte, und mit dem friiher erhal- tenen einen Collegen gliicklich mache.

“Tch schliesse, unter wiederholtem Danke, mit meinen aufrichtigsten Wiinschen fiir Ihre fernere gesegnete Wirksamkeit ; die Hoffnung, Sie noch einmal an den Ufern des Rheins zu sehn, welche ja auch Ihre Heimat sind, darf ich wohl nicht hegen. Immerhin darf ich Sie versichern, dass die sich immer mehr kundgebende Vermihlung deutscher und englischer Wissenschaft, an welcher Sie namentlich in so bedeutender Weise Theil genommen haben, mir seit lange eine erfreuliche Erscheinung ist, eine um so anspruchslosere meinerseits, da ich dabei eine ganz passive Rolle spiele, und nur die Ehre dabei habe, kein Verdienst. Vor kurzem ist nun auch meine Geschichte des Kanons durch einen Prediger in Glasgow iibersetzt worden; ob er damit Anklang gefunden, weiss ich nicht.

“Genehmigen Sie, verehrtester Herr Professor, die Versicherung der unwandelbaren Hochachtung und Ergebenheit womit ich verharre

“ Thr dankbarer, Ep. Reuss.”

PREFACE. © 1X

can preferences.’ I do not even except that venerable mem- ber of the Old Testament Company, who, in a scholarly and courteous printed letter addressed to me, pronounces the Revision of the New Testament a practical failure, because it departs too much from the old version, and sacrifices its poetic beauty and archaic flavor to pedantic fidelity.2 But

Dr. W. Grimm (the author of the Clavis Novi Test., and one of the Re- visers of Luther’s Bible) brings the book in contact with the new German revision, and writes:

“ JENA, 30 Dec., 1883. “ Hochgeehrtester Herr College:

“Das Jahr 1883 ist im Scheiden begriffen. Ich darf aber dessen letzte Stunde nicht herankommen lassen, ohne Ihnen meinen allerherzlichsten Dank zu sagen fiir Ihr ausgezeichnetes Werk A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Version, mit welchem Sie mich zu beehren und zu erfreuen die Giite gehabt haben. Dasselbe wird einen Ehrenplatz in meiner Bibliothek einnehmen.

“ Die sogenannte ‘ Probebibel’ oder der mit Aenderungen der Revisions- Commission versehene Abdruck der lutherischen Uebersetzung ist vor Kurzem erschienen und wahrscheinlich auch Ihnen zu Gesicht gekommen. Er soll dem theologischen Publicum Anlass geben zu Ausstellungen und zu Vorschligen von weiteren Verbesserungen. Die Urtheile werden, wie diess in der Natur der Sache liegt, wohl sehr weit auseinander gehen.” ...

* I may be permitted to quote as a specimen an extract from a letter of the late THomas CHENERY, editor of the Times, and a member of the Old Testament Company. He wrote me, from ‘‘ Printing House Square,” London, Oct. 8, 1883: ‘‘ Allow me to thank you most sincerely for the copy of your most valuable book. . . . I rejoice that the defence of the principle of revision, and of the actual results attained by the New Testament Com- pany, has been so thoroughly and successfully made.” ...

2 A Letter to the Reverend Philip Schaff, D.D., President of the Ameri- can Committee on Revision, by Frederick Field, M.A., LL.D., Honorary Fel- low of Trinity College, Cambridge. Oxford, 1883 (15 pages). Dr. Field had previously published a criticism of the Revised New Testament in his Otium Norvicense. He attributes the failure chiefly to the self-chosen isolation of the Revisers from public opinion. They formed a corporation in which a few leading men, οἱ δοκοῦντες στῦλοι εἶναι, controlled the de- bate, and so the Revisers “lost the touch.”

x PREFACE.

I still believe that the foundation will stand, while grant- ing (as I intimated before, on p. 477) that the Revision may need a final editing by the Committee, with proper regard to the criticism of competent scholars and the con- servative feelings of Christian people. The opposition has spent its force and fury without being able to point out any serious error. The Revised Old Testament, which was finished in December, 1884, will be published in a few weeks (May 21, 1885), and produce a favorable reaction. It includes few changes of the Hebrew text, and carefully retains the old idiom.

The churches will now be able to form a just estimate of the whole work, and to decide whether it shall take the place of the old Version.

The Revision movement must succeed. So much time and labor cannot have been spent in vain. It is not con- fined to the English-speaking churches, but extends over the whole Protestant world. The German commission has been at work for twenty years in revising Luther’s Version, and has published, tentatively, the Probebibel, so called (Halle, 1883), which is submitted to public examination be- fore its final adoption. It is as severely criticised as the English Revision, but for the opposite reason. It is more © cautiously, but far less thoroughly, done. The same German scholars who disregard the authority of the textus receptus closely adhere in this popular work to the text of the sec- ond edition of Erasmus which was used by Luther, and depart from it only in a few places (Acts xii. 25; Heb. x. 34; 1 John ii. 23; Rev. xi. 2). Even the spurious passage of the three witnesses in 1 John v. 7 is retained, though in small type and in brackets, with the note that it was want- ing in Luther’s editions! This timid conservatism can-

é

PREFACE. ΧΙ

not satisfy the just demands of scholarship. Luther’s Ver- sion holds the same front rank among German classics as King James’s Version among English classics; but while the former is the product of one towering genius, the latter is the result of three generations of scholars, and far more accurate. The English Revision must retain the suprem- acy for faithfulness to the original, without sacrificing the charm of freedom, beauty, and force of the Authorized Version.

I cannot close this Preface without a tribute of friend- ship to the memory of one who strongly urged me to write this Companion, who carefully read the proof-sheets of the first edition as they passed through the press, and whose last work on earth, in spite of weakness and pain, was to bring down to the latest date his own classified lists of uncial and cursive MSS. (pp. 101 and 133). Dr. Ezra Assor died peacefully, as he had lived, March 21, 1884, sixty-four years of age. His name Ezra is significant. He was beyond dispute the first textual critic of the Greek Testament in America; while in thoroughness and minuteness of knowl- edge he hardly had a superior in the world. His consci- entious accuracy was proverbial. His bibliographical in- formation, as shown in The Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, and his numerous additions to Smith’s Dic- tionary of the Bible, was astonishing. His revision of Hud- son’s Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament is most useful for reference. His book on the _ Authorship of the Fourth Gospel is the best vindication of the Johannean origin within the limits of external evidence. His services in the American Revision Committee, which he attended most regularly from beginning to end, were invaluable. He took the deepest interest with pen and

ΧΙ PREFACE.

purse in Dr. Gregory’s Prolegomena to Tischendorf’s Greek Testament, and followed them page for page, but did not live to see them published. The crowning traits of his pure and noble character were his modesty and generosity. He was always ready to give others the benefit of his own investigations. If only the work was done and the truth promoted, no matter by whom, he was satisfied and re- joiced. His loss to Biblical scholarship seems irreparable. His name will be associated with that small but select com- pany of scholars who have devoted their lives to the res- _ toration of the pure text of the Book of books.

: THe AUTHOR. New York, April 10, 1885.

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.

I am thankful for another opportunity of revising and improving this book, which has been introduced in several institutions as a manual of instruction on the Language and Text of the Greek Testament, and its English Version and Revision.

Within the last few years several new editions of the Greek Testament (see pp. 1 and 524) and other important works have appeared, such as Dr. Thayer’s Greek-Hnglish Lexicon, Dr. Warfield’s Introduction to the Textual Criti- cism of the VN. T., and the voluminous Critique Textuelle of Abbé Martin." The Second Part of Dr. Gregory’s Prolegomena to Tischendorf may soon be expected.

1 As I have no room on p, 84 for the full title of this extraordinary work, I shall give it here (from a copy in the Astor Library). Abbé J. P. P. Martin (professeur ἃ l’école supérieure de théologie de Paris): Introduction a la Critique textuelle du Nouveau Testament, Partie théorique. Legons professes ἃ UEcole supérieure de théologie de Paris, 1882-’83. Paris, 1883 (712 pages, 4to). The other five volumes are published under the same general title, but as Purtie pratique, and are numbered sepa- rately. Tom. I. (II.), publ. 1884 (327 pp.), contains an account of the uncial Codd. &, A, B, C, D, and Origen as a textual witness; tom. IT, 1884 (554 pp.), is devoted to the disputed section of Mark xvi. 9-20, which he defends with as much learning and ingenuity as Dean Burgon; tom. IIL 1885 (512 pp.), to Luke xxii. 43,44; xxiii. 34; a Supplement, 1884 (204 pp.), to a description of New Test. MSS. in the libraries of Paris; tom. IV. 1886 (549 pp.), to the interpola‘ions in John v. 3, 4, and vii. 58-viii. 11, both of which he sustains; tom. 7, 1886 (248 pp.), to the spurious passage on the three witnesses, 1 John v. 7, which he thinks Catholics are at liberty to

x1V PREFACE.

I have brought down the literature to the latest date, and made other improvements (especially on pages 1, 2, 3, 80, 83, 84, 101, 102, 138, 147, 151, 167, 208, 379, 391, 396, 397, 417, 524, 609).

In the third Appendix (pp. 571 sqq.) I had to record the death of several Revisers, among them Archbishop Trench, whose funeral I attended in Westminster Abbey (April 2, 1886), Professor Short, of Columbia College, New York, and Bishop Lee, of Delaware, the senior of his brethren in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and one of

accept, to question, or to reject. The whole work is photo-lithographed, enriched with numerous photo-lithographic fac-similes, and full of rare learning. If the Practical Part is to discuss all the other disputed read- ings, it will require many more volumes. A limited number of copies was struck off, and the Partie théorique is exhausted. The same author has published: Quatre Manuscrits du Nouveau Testament auxquels on peut en aqjouter un cinquieme (Extrait de la Revue des Sciences Ecclésiastiques). Amiens and Paris (quai Voltaire, 25), 1886 (62 pp., with fac-similes). He traces the four cursive MSS., 13, 69, 124, and 346, which belong to the family of the oldest uncials (as shown by W. H. Ferrar and T. K. Abbott, of Dublin, 1877), and perhaps also MS. 348 (in the Ambrosian library of Milan), to a Greek Church in Calabria or Sicily, chiefly because the synaxarion or catalogue of church lessons of the cursive MS. 13 contains the names of several Calabrian and Sicilian saints not known elsewhere (pp. 14, 16).

Abbé Martin is an advocate of the traditional (Latin) text of the Roman Church, he depreciates the oldest MSS. (&, A, B, C, D) as texts “ fabricated” from Origen and other Greek fathers, and gives the highest authority to the lectionaries, although he knows them to be incomplete and full of liturgical additions and changes! His extraordinary learning is controlled by dogmatic prepossessions and strange eccentricities, which shake confidence in his conclusions. Some years ago (in Des Versions Syriennes) he amused the learned world by the hoax (accepted by Dr. Scrivener, in the third ed. of his Jntroduction, pp. 828, 325, 328, 331, in sober earnest) that the (older) Curetonian Syriac Version was a corruption of the (younger) Peshitto made in the sixth century with the aid of a Greek MS. resembling Codex Beze!

PREFACE. Xv

the most faithful members of the New Testament Company. The number of Revisers is fast diminishing, but their work will survive.

The library, records, and documents of the American Revision Committee have been donated to the American Bible Society, and are kept in a separate book-case in the Bible House, New York, for future use.

Tue AvtTHor. Union THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, New York, Nov., 1887.

Postscript. —In “The Independent,” New York, Aug. 25, 1887, Dr. Caspar René Gregory, of Leipzig, gives an account of the discovery of a number of important palimpsest leaves by Abbé Pierre Batiffol, the Parisian priest who examined at Berat the purple manuscript ® (Codex Beratinus) at the instance of his teacher, Abbé Louis Duchesne, and during the last winter made a special study of the Basilian MSS. in the Vatican Library. The new MS. is the Codex Vaticanus Grecus 2061, on parchment containing upon 316 leaves the sermons of Gregory Nazianzen written by Basil, a priest, in the 10th or 11th century, and beneath them on twenty-one leaves in three columns considerable fragments of the New Testament, which Dr. Gregory is inclined to assign to the age of Constan- tine the Great as parts of one of the fifty copies prepared by Eusebius, at _ the command of the emperor, for the churches of Constantinople. This would make them, as far as they go, of equal authority with the Sinaitic and Vatican MSS. Batiffol expects to publish these palimpsest leaves about three or four years hence. They contain the following passages: Acts xxvi. 4-xxvii. 10; xxviii. 2-31; James iv. 14-ν. 20; 2 Peter ii. [2?]- iii. 15; 1 John iv. θ-ν. 21; 2 John 1-13; 3 John 1-15; Rom. xiii. 4-xv. 9; 1 Cor. iv. [4? ]-vi. 16-xii. 23-xiv. 21-xv. 3-xvi. 1; 2 Cor. iv. 7-vi. 8-vii. 15-x. 6-Eph. v. (5? ]-vi. [22?]; Phil. i. 1-ii.9; Col. i. 20-iv. 6; 1 Thess i. 1,2; 1 Tim. v. 6-vi, 45; 2 Tim. i. 1-ii, 25; Tit. iii, 13-15; Philem, 1-25; Heb. xi. 32-xiii. 4.

2

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PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

Since the publication of the third edition of this volume (1888), the following noteworthy works on the textual history of the Greek Testament have appeared :

1. A photographic fac-simile edition, of 100 copies, of the New Testament of the Coprx Varticanus (No. 1209), at Rome, 1889, which confirms the gen- eral accuracy of the more convenient quasi-fac-simile edition previously published (1881). See pp. 117 sq. I bought a copy from the photographer, Danesi, in Rome, May, 1890.

2. The Second Part of Dr. Grecory’s Proizaom- gEnA to Dr. Tischendorf’s eighth critical edition of the Greek Testament, Leipsic, 1890 (pp. 441-800), which greatly enlarges the number and increases our knowledge of the cursive MSS., together with a supplement of additional uncial fragments. See pp. 101 sq., 135 sq. The Third and last Part has not yet appeared.

8. 4 Full Account and Collation of the Greek — Cursive Codex Evangelium 604, together with fac- similes and several critical Appendices, by Herman C. Hosxier, London (David Nutt), 1890.

4. A fifth edition of Hammonn’s Outlines of Teat- ual Criticism of the New Testament, Oxford (Clar-

XViil PREFACE.

endon Press), 1890 (pp. 155). In Appendix B, Hammond discusses some disputed readings —1 John v. 7,8; John v. 3,43 vii. 53—-viii. 11; 1 Tim. iii. 16; Mark xvi. 9-20—against the received text and in favor of the uncial text.

5. Three scholarly and useful Appendices of Dr. - Wituiam Sanpay of Oxford to a revised edition of Lloyd’s Greek Testament, Oxford (Clarendon Press), 1889. The first appendix gives a collation of the Westcott-Hort text with that of Stephanus of 1550 (pp. 1-92); the second, a selection of the most note- worthy readings (pp. 93-181); the third, certain read- ings of the Memphitic, Armenian, and Aithiopic ver- sions (pp. 182-199).

6. Dr. Bernnarp Weiss (Prof. in Berlin): Dée Johannes-Apokalypse. Textkritische Untersuchun- gen und Textherstellung, Leipsic, 1891 (225 pp.), in “ Texte und Untersuchungen zur Gesch. der alt- christ]. Literatur v. O. v. Gebhardt und Ad. Harnack,” Bd. vii. Heft 1.

This is a most elaborate and painstaking attempt to restore the original text of the Apocalypse from the five remaining uncial MSS., namely, the Sinaitic (x), of the fourth; the Alexandrian (A) and Ephraemi (C), of the fifth; the Porfirianus Chiovensis (P) and the Vaticanus Romanus 2066 (B”*, or Q Tels), both of the eighth or ninth century. The famous Vatican Codex (B) is here missing, as it extends only to Heb. ix. 14.

These five MSS. present nearly 1650 variations in the 400 verses of the Apocalypse. Ood. A shows about 210, C (a defective palimpsest) 110, 8 over

PREFACE. X1X

515 variations. Dr. Weiss records, classifies, and dis- cusses these textual variations with minute care and exhaustive fulness. At the close he gives the amended text with critical notes which amount almost to a commentary. He follows chiefly the Alexandrian MS., which, upon the whole, is the best for the Apocalypse. He agrees substantially with Westcott and Hort, who follow that MS. still more closely, while Tischendorf favored too much the Sinaitic MS., which he was himself so fortunate as to discover. But the agreement of Weiss with Westcott and Hort is not so great in the Apocalypse as in the Gospels, where they have a more reliable common basis in the Vatican MS. Dr. Weiss has been confirmed by the textual investigation in his conviction of the unity of the Apocalypse against the recent hypothesis which would make it a Jew- ish production worked over and supplemented by a Christian hand. This is an important result.

In this fourth edition I have made several other additions to the literature, and brought it down to date. I am indebted for the correction of a few slight errors on pp. 87, 188, and 140 to my friend Dr. Oscar von Gebhardt (a most competent judge), in his appreciative notice of the third edition in Har- nack and Schiirer’s “ Theologische Literaturzeitung,” March 8, 1890.

In the Third Appendix, I have had to record the death of several members of the Revision Com- panies: Dr. F. W. Gotch, Prof. William Wriglit, ᾿ς Bishop Lightfoot, and Dr. F. H. A. Scrivener, of the English Revisers; Dr. Woolsey, Dr. Thos, J. Co-

xx PREFACE.

nant, and Dr. Howard Crosby, of the American Revisers.

Of the American New Testament Company only six members remain among the living. But the two Companies have kept up their organization for the purpose of preparing an American standard edition of the Revised Version, which is to be pub- lished as soon as the term of their agreement with the University Presses of England shall have come to an end.

It is hoped that the authorized American edition of the New Testament will appear in 1894 or 1895, with the American Appendix incorporated in the text, and with chapter headings, parallel passages, and other auxiliaries necessary for popular use. A new Appendix, stating the precise relation of the American and English texts, will be added.

Puruie Scuarr. New Yors, November, 1891.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER FIRST. THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

PAGE ET εν A Sh So RS CPE Lah dtehdicemphe le ἐδ δον ψῷ 1 THREE ELECT Taster aans FORRES HAN GSD FG ea ae ee sanhs ΤΡ, μα ΠΣ: 4 SprEaD OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE... 0.00.20. ccccccvccccccvercs 6 THE JEWS AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE............0-.0eseeeeeees 8 CHRIST AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE............-.0e0e00: ΚΤ ὑ δὴν 12 THE APOSTLES AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE.............: Gavan 16 Tue GREEK AND THE ENGLISH............. mi ae ly Aaa en τὶ eee Tue Macepontan DIALECcT......... RS io APO senuveinceeueaen 19 ΠΝ BOREL TIC TALBOT ΝΣ ogee Nabe 22 ἘΝ ΡΥ ΟΝ. ΕΙΣ ΑΚ ekuencewe wees 23 ΠΝ ΡΟ τ COUN Soc y.na's δεν o's 5% bu 0b ς ον Muh ericeieeles ΝΣ 0 BS EIA st Sadie Ole eae DoD Sea RENE Pina SP Pua Soiree Aer a OT ΠΥ Sica cca ἘΝ μῶν Φρινάψ a bale b'e Shae δ vn Rie Vane 35 NUMBER AND VALUE OF FOREIGN WORDS............200 seceeees 38 ΝΥΝ CIOL ΜΝ ὁ τὺ so kos 0 bo 6 bo oon cae senw veeeue anes 39 PO LLARITIES OF GPYLES 5 di. sis. edo a amen. 43 NIU ies ais oi Nils WIGAN 006 Vida δι εν εν Rs τὸ βαρ μα sehen 46 Pa sob 5s CHUM ἐπ aba ea hea eek a shaw seein ee 51 οἰ eh emer i Sistah id's bpp Se belie κα ἡ Sah eek τὰ ead Ck a ΠΡ Ἢ 54 ds ang ba 364 Rae edd oad Ve vb aee noble dé 9 gap aiakie ee aaa 62 ΝΣ aii o's Dye ore MAMA MERE aw ale oa ΝΟΣ Be δεν 66 ES NIE ag sc ave Uceh sie νυν ΚΗ sa x's» 0 ORR tis 75

EvipENTIAL VALUE OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE GREEK TESTAMENT. 80 Summary OF THE PecutiaR VocaBuLarjes or THE N, T, Waiters, 609

ΧΧΙΙ TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER SECOND. MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LITERATURE ON THE SOURCES OF THE TEXT AND ON TEXTUAL CRIT-

PAGE

EE eid veaiiacta uo) d Skea NER La bie σοῖς a aie yn ale nde Bae sia meee 82 IS ON TT a es, cin o +: cine spain <, eplniti ae abe opera en 85 FacsimILes OF MANUSCRIPTS..... Seppe: Dt Gas SER BEE Be RIE 91 GENERAL CHARACTER OF MANUSCRIPTS.........0.scecccesesececs 93 A. Unctan MANUSORIPTS. .........ccccccnccees < hie hind ise 98

DIM ARY. ΝΑ τς se aek ds ἐς ds cee vend secu 102 ΔῊ ie ACCT a a o's) 6 so o.0 9.96 sh de ges Oe 0 .Τι 103

Tr Gk DAEMON ὁ γε bladers's w ἐδὼ οἴου be © ocho Ream 111

τυ METS ata eth cic vs aes ἐν ἐν δεν ease eae 113 TOMER MME OS SOI eh vals ne os 0 oe ve t's 08 cus ΤΥ ΤΟΣ 120 UIE Σιν tie ev νυ cesses ook 2p 6 RACE 122 POONA ΠΝ ΘΕΝ RS a. μιν ρὸν ἐν εν 2 oda su, ον Δ Σὲ 124

ΠΥ ΘΥΥΝ PA MUSORIPT ἐν ει ἐν τως Fs 54-010 elds sins be dav eels 188 List or ῬΌΒΙΙΒΗΕΡ Unciats. By Prof L. HL Batts 139

CHAPTER THIRD. ANCIENT VERSIONS. ALUM OF -VERBIONS ον cc oes idle cdc asses τς ΜΕΝ 142

LatTINn VERSIONS: ΠῊ AICI DATES aha πον ARAN ac. tigntacnis δ @1a-s, ewe pw Re 0 ΩΟΩ͂Ν ἈΝὴ 144 ΤῊΣ VULGATE........ SR er ee oS seta ela oa ak Gi eay ee 148

Syriac VERSIONS:

DYER; PRB CT iS eos 0s km oie oie Slee 5 iw e's sfa'e'n “sata ewes 152 ἐγ τι TA ὉΠ ΠΥ Uiale's 5 4 on's'a's 0'o'0e o's oe eae OR 154 ἜΗΝ Οὐ ΜΌΝ, eR vs δον το σὸς ἐς κι ον sce εκ eee 156 ΤῊΝ SEROMA ie le back Oe ἐς ἐς iis ξτυν νὸς ἐς τς τα ΠΣ 167

ΕΘΎΡΤΙΑΝ VERSIONS: PASE ἀν Δ Ὁ προ δ Oi. a wah ΠΠΠ|Ὸ ERE 158 PI RE ee ei wun Τ᾿ ἤν as oeaw Rte 159 Are PAM UMN Rea Winans Uy hig cd oe pes ὁ ἐνερ ἐν ΨΥ ΝΣ 159

TABLE OF CONTENTS. ΧΧΙΪ

PAGE nna VY RRRION Ge cehe cakes a Ue ζω δ ὃν ἀκ τόνον ἐὰν ἐξ SONS 159 Peete V ἘΠΗ͂Ν Ne πεσε νι δ oa δὰ eb aa cAgicuene'sen on 160 ΠΥ ΝΝν “V BUSIOW τ Fons da bviec'wcns-dwse cvecvwewicdeesceas ded . 163 CHAPTER FOURTH. PATRISTIC QUOTATIONS. VALUE OF PATRISTIC QUOTATIONS. ... {τι ..ccccccceccecccceces 164 GREEK FATHERS............... Ab PRS DTI At VET Dae Sat ah ot RS iy ἐὰ 167 ΠΝ ΥΒΕΗΝ νυν ον κὸν bee ed weld el nau cddied aiwedmaet 169 CHAPTER FIFTH. TEXTUAL CRITICISM. Nature AND Opject OF TEXTUAL CRITICISM...........00-22 ces 171 τ ΠΑ ORE SIRS A ντε, ΤΜΕΆΜΕΝΎΕ ΑΙ ΤΑ. ee tela Ga ig ati ὙΌΡΥ: 173 ee RN ABTATIONS 6 πους εκ ζοῦν ρει Ae diode bene hams 176 OT TES, aR REG ERE 2 Sphere οέγὴς ραν μ UA Ane δ ον 177 eee tim WV ABTAPIOND, «i's issn os εν evo dad cause ον ἐς φερνε ν caren 188 MINED ον) Se ae ἐμῷ ere ae pln b wlia uetnane bailed 188 ᾿ς, νου μὰν κεἰς ὸ νῦν ἐδ νῶν ὑπο <idnis> ahaa x aaah Loo ἘΣ ΥΡΡΟΝΟ, rats ss we δος φρο εν λάϊνον Ube ee 198 CriticaAL RULES....... Sid de awa ho τἀ ὦ Kikai bin th Mie ὁ oc cagaksen 202 MPPLICATION OF THE TULLE. 5... ccccccsscccesvecberceaceseusns 205

Tue GeNEaLocicaL Mreruop. (By Prof. B. B. Warrietp, D.D.). 208

CHAPTER SIXTH. HISTORY OF THE PRINTED TEXT.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS...........; RR hanni sesame ψ τς nai eee I. Tae Periop or THE Textus Recerptus: From ERAsMUS AND SrepHens TO Bence. and Wertstein.—A.D. 1516-1750...... 228 Tae: Taexvus 1} ΠΡ ἐν ΠΡ alts 228 DAS. ον SI Tees fe ee. 229 QCOMPLUTENSTIAN ΒΕ ΟΥ νὰν 66s). ieee Se. als 232 ΟΡ ΟΝ FS Nes οὐχ ἐν Sa 2a Ri eds vale wh ϑος ἐφ ans She 236

XXiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE εν τ a cae kaka c adic ἐξα own os Fs 2a Meera 237 7) Se Ome Ppa Peels =<. Ree ae ἐν MAREN Ce |. 240 WE RETON ee FOLIC ore ΤΥ ρον eee 241 DNME Eh by GOS okie κα No ee ea τὴν ἐγ dos a ieie's kb DO eee 244 ΠΝ ον y's, Sata a Vaca Mach τ δι bsae bina Voie bua eu o/s ΕΝ ΝΥ 245 BORON ss sassy coke eta e eden bk FL ds ddode s és ckassoueen 246 δ ΠΣ a MLE Re Noe NAS a PR DT ΤΑ. γεν: 247

II. Skconp Periop: TRANSITION FROM THE TextUS REcEPTUS TO

THE UncraL Text. From Grikspach ΤῸ LAacHMANN. — A.D. PREM cs ooh dies oh aoe aed EG awe AER Doe wR . 249 δεν το osc ssp va de μον εὐ τορος ἐλυϊῤαμν Salas se 250 PATOL AT 0355. Ss erties ons Race ee te Νὰ ἐν ρον τυ, ΜΝ 252 SNM sis δα ΜΆ phe Sk Sa Bie sd aie BEG TAN OAD hake ΘΕ Qin. 0} 253

III. Turrp Periop: THe RESTORATION OF THE PRIMITIVE TEXT.

From LACHMANN AND TISCHENDORF TO Westcott AND Hort.— ΒΟ ΒΤ τος κε τας σε cgecea! τς εν ΕΣ wen thet 254 ἘΝ Ss so has Phebe beak RUane eed ede e εν ἘΣ ΣΝΝ 254 ΠΗ ΣΑΣ τοῦς ον κα ΜΝ tek tee Rae 257 RROBLL UE ss ἀρ τ ΠΝ κοι ὁ ἢ, 262 PEMORGY 03 s3c so a sb ur otacneece kines paseeeesh waee te en 266 WV ΘΤΘΟΥΥ “AND HORT. εν ooo wick eae ee oe ean sae eee eae 268 SORIVENER AND PALMER Woes ia ΣΥΝ ΚΘ ἢ 282 RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT, :. 3.25253 53635c60c56 en obeeeee 287

CHAPTER SEVENTH. THE AUTHORIZED VERSION.

MPT soy sola & chs ce prereset bina Vitae @ hace WER Ere RN oe ee 299 ΠΝ SIBLE AND. CHRISTIANITY «co 0:44 o's ac'vausicn swakackeocMnee 305 ORIGIN OF KING JAMES’S VERSION.........cccccccccccccccceecs 312 ΣῊ ἢ ΥΩ F REGORINED . 90 5). 55 4 dane teens) « woases ΝΟ ΟΠ ἢ 317 PROGRESS’ OF ‘THE | WORKS io. 6 eRieeuge Πρ 319 ΟΝ; os cst asthe rain ww lel bess em 4 asa a dR MRSC s wee an Ρν ΨῊΣ 3825 Was Kine James’s VERSION EVER AUTHORIZED?............... 330 Orrricat EstimaTe.—MERITS..... 2.0.0.5 vecccteccececceccucecs 337 τος re ot Su Eon τυ τ ΗΛ CAMS ala en 347

PREPARATIONS FOR REVISION,.....--0ccescecsecccseces εν ἐν ΝΣ

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXV

CHAPTER EIGHTH.

THE REVISED VERSION. PAGE απο. isan see τυ νέαν, x ole Su dvaWueebeuscectes 371 ACTION OF THE CONVOCATION OF CANTERBURY.........0...0000: 380 ORGANIZATION AND RULES OF THE BritIsH COMMITTEE.......... 382 Work OF THE BRITISH COMMITTEE............ceccceesccesceses 387 Δ ΥΕΟΙΟΝΝ UP-OPERATION 5 Oe ci'v's 5 Leck dasa whedon dev anceeesabpes 391 CONSTITUTION OF THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE........2.eeeeeee005 396 RELATION OF THE AMERICAN AND ENGLISH COMMITTEES AND AGREEMENT WITH THE UNIVERSITY PRESSES............000+++ 398 PE LOATION "νυ νυ en sais nun een OUT abin ΟΣ ΠΩΣ 408 RECEPTION, CRITICISM, AND PROSPECT........+0ceesseccscevoecss 411 MERITS OF THE REVISION AS COMPARED WITH THE OLD VersION.. 417 Tae GREEK TEXT OF THE REVISED VERSION......... CLA 420 Sevect List or TEXTUAL CHANGES. .:..0.0 00.0 ole c cles cv cecee 428 Sevect List or IMPROVED RENDERINGS.............0.eeeceeeees 434 Tue Ene@iisH Styite or THE REVISED VERSION............. «0+: 455 ἘΝ, os a-ak «9.6.6 03's bio 8d Lek bled hee enol <i d 459 EI ΘΗΝ. 565 ane’ c)a-y ace. ον μων RMD Ad ee a 462 IMPROVEMENTS IN RHYTHM.........ccccccececceseucveceecs 464 GRAMMATICAL IRREGULARITIES........2c2.cccccccesesseeaes 465 POMMLTOIUURB 555s 05 6s abs in oo ok ὑφ νυ POUT κὸν 466 ΝΙΝ TED ai. ou ih νυν κὸν νων ωνος ἐλ χὰ νὸν ΜΕΝ 468 NEEDLESS VARIATIONS. νον. νου ον ΑΝ eet 474 Tae AMERICAN Part IN THE JOINT WORK............000e 00000: 478 PER UMMERIOAN APPENDIC τον αν ΣΥΝ ΡΝ ΣΤ cease ne 482 το τ κα Αι πὰ ἀπο τ oy clic vd Ge acs v0 aves oq το δὰ tana omeRe 490

Appenpix I.—List or Printep Epitions or THE GREEK NEW

TesTaMENT. (By Prof. I. H. Hatt, Ph. D.)............... . 497 Appenprx II.—Fac-stmiLes or STANDARD EDITIONS OF THE GREEK

MP AMENE CL oh lec bv sbanee month ΟΝ ce ta wie 525 Appenpix IJI.—List or ENGLISH AND AMERICAN REVISERS..... 571 Appenpix [V.—List oF AMERICAN CHANGES ADOPTED BY THE

EneiisH Commitrec. (By Bishop Atrrep Ler, D.D.)...... 579 Appenpix V.—ADOPTION OF THE REVISION BY THE BAPTISTS... 607 EMI AD, SIIVEN ἡ τ ΡΠ 609

Inpex or SorrprurE PassaGes EXPLAINED, .......sseseeeeeeeee 615

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGH

SPECIMENS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GREEK PS IE MIET j5< n 5:a's sc 'nlo ss Wed eB ne we he 4.0081» vie @a\0n ae keel 91, 92 SPECIMEN OF CODEX SINAITICUS........... 0c... cece cece ecccccee: 107 “ “ AEE AMRIT 0 το 5 on cnn bene eee 112 “ - PE UTIs a be.5s 0 va’ νῆν οἰ διλ λον REE ARTE 114 66 a πα, πο ΟΣ ty >» 121 “ “ ROGSAMENGIS, 3-6/0. ιν δῶν JA, A 132 “ “ BAGILRENGIC. τ 11. . ee 135 RURAL COTA MBER τος νυ a a Nios cle ob bis CON ge 389

SPECIMEN PAGES OF STANDARD EDITIONS OF THE GREEK TESTA- MENT:

CoMPLUTENSIAN PoLyGuor, 1514..................000. 530, 531 που, σε τ Sia vis τυ α ἐν pb Mela, wins ons <p κοῖς Ade an ee alee 532, 533 i RD ON eet Re ee Prep ern 584, 535 SRM EMN RON νιν τ as Webb a Bids wes + mas ved aie δὺ δον et 536, 537 SORPHMNG, 1051 τερον εκ ξέναι δόρει cons ccewes anne ὅ88, ὅ89 ἘΣ ΑΜ Sao Ee reer Meee hale Nb ck bw cleds ον εν ων τε ΠῚ 540, 541 TONS BO SAG GAs ER oe Soe 542, 543 Mrgevin, 2 ϑιν ocaiacn Hui ot 4 PA 544, 545 WAxtOw's POUT IOUS oo icc soins ve been cre ve RED 546, 547 ETO is ae ie Hdd d Noose cee ob te wd eae 548, 549 BENGEL, 1734..... aii a! » Sabie diss, snes ΤΥ αἱ 550, 551 ΟΝ, AIOE ode αν ΝΒ eb bes crme ons onal peas 552, 553 ΟἾΟΝ, AIO ake hc kins ον ὁ οικυς βρέ αι οἰ adie 554, 555 SOME, DOOM νον τ, κευ νιν νυν Cee age epee es 556, 557 LACHMANN, TOG ΤῈ, τὰ cin daaaaa dae name νὸς ἐς Cree sede 558, 559 LACHMANN, 184}. 1850... νυ το cc ον τ νον νυν ρος «ον ς. 560, 561 Tiscummpone, TEAL YE ον ἐξα νον ἴων τ, eed bs Meme 562, 563 "TISCHEMDORE,, 1869-1872 «40's νοι 56 0100 οὐδ pimsisiedis Hina wislds 564, 565 TRECRULSE, GODT δον νι Scene ss νι μος aca it epee 566, 567 W RSTOOTT. AMI TUORT 551. 2.0... κορῶν Rae dnnsiens Babe 568, 569

TITLE-PAGE OF THE AUTHORIZED ENGLISH VERSION, 1611 570

CHAPTER FIRST. THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. Literature.

I. CriricaL Epirions OF THE GREEK TESTAMENT.

I. By LacHMANN (1842-50, 2 vols.); T1scHENDORF (ed. octava critica major, 1864-72, 2 vols., with a vol. of Prolegomena by Gregory and Ab- bot, P. I., 1884); TrEGELLES (1857-79); Westcorr and Horr (1881, with a separate vol. of Introduction and Appendix, Cambridge, and New York, Harpers’ ed., from English plates, with Schaff’s Introduction ; revised Engl. ed. of the text, 1885; revised Amer. ed, 1889): PALMER (the text of the Revisers, 1881); WeymoutH (7126 Resultant Greek Testament, 1886, the agreed text of critical editors, with variations); ScrIvENER (the text of Stephanus, 1550, with other readings, 1887); O. ΡῈ GEBHARDT (N. T. Gr. ex ultima Tischendorfii recensione, 1887).

Lachmann laid the foundation for the ancient uncial (instead of the medieval cursive) text; Tischendorf and Tregelles enlarged and sifted the critical apparatus; Westcott and Hort restored the cleanest text from the oldest attainable sources. All substantially agree in principles and results.

II. Bilingual editions: Novum Testamentum Grece et Germanice, by OscAR VON GEBHARDT. Lips. 1881; second ed. 1884, (Tischendorf’s last text with the readings of Tregelles, Westcott and Hort, and the re- vised version of Luther.)

The Greek-English New Testament, being Westcott and Hort’s Greek Text and the Revised English Version of 1881. New York (Harper and Broth- ers), 1882; revised ed. 1889, The Oxford Parallel New Testament gives the Greek text of the Revisers with the Authorized and Revised Version, ° 1882. The Cambridge ed. of Ρ, N. 7. gives the Textus Receptus with the

readings of the Revisers and the Authorized and Revised Version, 1882,

Il, GRAMMARS OF THE GREEK TESTAMENT,

6. B. Winer (Professor in Leipsic, ἃ, 1858): Grammar of New-Testa- ment Greek (Grammatik des neutest. Sprachgebrauchs), Leipsic, 1822; 6th

g THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMEN’:

ed. 1855; 7th ed. by G. LUNEMANN, 1867. American “ revised and author- ized” translation from the seventh edition, by Prof. J. H. Taayer (of Andover Theological Seminary, now of Harvard University, Mass.), An- dover, 1869, etc. (728 pages). English translation by Rev. W. F. Μοῦ ΤΟΝ (Principal of The Leys School, Cambridge), with valuable additions and full indexes, Edinb. 1870; 2d ed. 1877 (848 pages).

Winer’s work is a masterpiece of classical and Biblical learning. It marked an epoch in New-Test. philology by checking the unbridled license of rationalistic exegesis, and applying the principles and results of classical philology to the Greek of the New Test.

ALEXANDER BuTTMANN: Grammatik des neutest. Sprachgebrauchs, Berlin, 1859.—A Grammar of the New-Testament Greek, translated by J. H. THayer. Andover, 1873 (474 pages). Several editions,

THomas SHELDON GREEN: A Treatise on the Grammar of the New Testament. London, 1842; New ed. 1862 (244 pages).

SAMUEL G. GREEN: Handbook to the Grammar of the Greek Testament ; together with a Complete Vocabulary, and an Examination of the Chief New- Testament Synonyms. London (publ. by the Religious Tract Society), 1870; 4th revised ed. 1885. The Grammar contains 422 pages, the Vocab- ulary 180 pages. Intended for students who have not studied the classical Greek, and well adapted for the purpose.

W. H. Siucox: Grammar of New Testament Greek. (Announced, London, 1887.)

III. Dicrionarigs,

C. L. W. Grimm (Professor in Jena): Lexicon Greco-Latinum in Inbros Novi Testamenti. Ed. 2da emendata et aucta. Lipsix, 1879. Based upon the Clavis Novi Testamenti Philologica of Cur. G. WILKE (d. 1856). Third ed. with reference to the readings of Westcott and Hort, 1887.

HERMANN CrEMER: Biblisch-theologisches Wérterbuch der neutest. Grda- citdt. Gotha, 1866; 2d ed. improved, 1872; 3d ed. 1883; 4th ed. 1886; 5th ed. 1887, English translation of the 2d ed. under the title Biblico- Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek, by William Urwick. Edinb, 1872; 2d ed. 1878; 3d ed. 1886, with additions from the third German ed.

Epwarp Rosinson (Professor in the Union Theological Seminary, New York, ἃ, 1863): A Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament. Re- vised ed. New York (Harpers), 1850. Αἱ first a translation of WaAl's Clavis (1825), then an independent work (1836), Very good, but in need of a thorough revision (in course of preparation, 1887),

THR LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 8

J. H. THayer: A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, ete, New York and Edinburgh, 1886, A translation of Grimm’s second ed, with many valuable additions. The best in the English language.

IV. CoNcoRDANCES,

Car. Herm, BruDER: Ταμιεῖον τῶν τῆς καινῆς διαϑήκης λέξεων, swe Concordantie omnium vocum Ν. T. Greci, ed. ster. Lips, 1842; 3d ed. 1867, 4th ed. 1887. Indispensable. Based on the work of Erasmus SCHMID (also spelled Scumipr in his preface, Prof. at Wittenberg, d. 1636), first published at Wittenberg, 1638, and again with a new preface by Ern. Salom. Cyprian, Gotha and Leips. 1717.

GrorGE V. WicrAM: The Englishman’s Greek Concordance of the New Testament, London (James Walton), 1844; 8th ed., with a Concordance of various readings, 1883. The Greek words are given in alphabetical order with the Eng. Version (King James’s). Reprinted, N. Y. (Harpers), 1848.

Cuar.Les F, Hupson: A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament, revised and completed by Ezra ΑΒΒΟΥ. Boston, 1870; 7th ed. Boston and London, 1882. Very useful, but requiring adaptation to the Revision of 1881.

V. SpectAL TREATISES.

Dominicus Diopati (a lawyer in Naples): Ezercitatio de Christo Graece loquente. Neapoli, 1767; republished by Dr. Dobbin ( Prof. of Trinity College, Dublin), London, 1843,

G. Bern. DE Ross! (professor of Oriental languages in Parma): Della lingua propria di Cristo e degli Ebrei nazionali della Palestina, Parma, 1772. Against Diodati.

Het. F. PFANNKUCHE (ἃ, 1833): On the Prevalence of the Aramean Language in Palestine in the Age of Christ and the Apostles (in Eichhorn’s “ Allg. Bibliothek,” viii. 365-480), 1797, Based on De Rossi, and trans- lated from the German by Dr. Ε΄. Robinson, with introductory art., in the “ Biblical Repository” (Andover, Mass.), vol. i. 309-363 (1831). Still valuable,

Jou. Leonu. Hue (R. Cath., ἃ. 1846): Zustand der Landessprache in Palastina als Matthdus sein Evangelium schrieb, in his Einleitung in die Schriften des N. T., ii. 30-56; 3d ed, Stuttgart, 1826 (a 4th ed. appeared 1847). Translated by Dr. E. Robinson in “ Biblical Repository,” Ando- ver, 1831, i. 530-551. He agrees with Hug in maintaining that the Greek and Aramzan languages were both current in Palestine at the time of Christ and the Apostles.

4 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

ALEXANDER Roperts: Discussions on the Gospels. London, 1863 Greek the Language of Christ and the Apostles. 1888. Renews the opin. ion of Diodati.

WILuI1AM HENRY GUILLEMARD: Hebraisms in the Greek Testament, Cambridge, 1879. This contains the text of the Gospel of Matthew (which appeared first in 1875 as the beginning of a Hebraistic edition of the Greek Test.) and extracts from the other books,

Epwin Harca (ἃ. 1889): Lssays in Biblical Greek. Oxford, 1889,

See also James HADLEY, art. Language of the New Test., in Hackett and Abbot’s ed. of Smith’s “ Dict. of the Bible,” ii.1590. B.F.Wexsrcort, art. Hellenist, ibid. ii. 1039; art. New Test., cbid, iii. 21389. Ep. Reuss, art. Hellenistisches Idiom, in Herzog’s “ Real-Encyklop.,” v.741 (new ed. 1879). Fr. De.irzscu, Ueber die paldstinische Volkssprache, in “ Daheim” tor 1874,No.27. BiEEk, Einl.i.d. N. Test., 4th ed. by Mangold, 1886 (p.77 sqq.).

THREE ELECT LANGUAGES. IHZOY= O NAZOPAIOZ O ΒΑΣΙΛΕῪΣ ΤΩΝ IOYAAION.

prin Foe WEP saws . δ» τ > ° ΤΣ Ψ - “

JESUS NAZARENUS REX 900 ΖΟΒΌΜ.

There are three elect nations of antiquity—the Jews, the Greeks, and the Romans; three elect cities —Jerusalem, Athens, and Rome; and three elect languages—the Hebrew, the Greek, and the Latin.

These three agencies worked together for the introduction of the Christian religion and for the spread of Christian civilization. The threefold in- scription on the Cross, which is recorded with slight variations by all evangelists,’ proclaimed, in the name of the representative of the Roman empire, the universal destination of the Gospel. What was written in bitter irony proved to be a true oracle

? John xix. 19 and the parallel passages,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 5

of heathenism; as Caiaphas, the high-priest, uttered an involuntary prophecy in the name of hostile Judaism when he said of Jesus: “It is expedient that one man should die for the people, and that the whole nation perish not.” *

“Jn that inscription of Pilate,” says an able histo- rian,’ ‘there seems to be an unconscious prophecy of the future destiny of the world. From that Cross, and through the channel of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, have radiated all the influences which have made modern civilization the precious inheritance it is. That Cross was set up at the point of confluence of those three great civilizations of an- tiquity which have ever since profoundly affected the life, public and private, of the people of West- ern Europe. The Hebraic monotheistic conception of the Deity, the Greek universal reason, and the Roman power, and especially its language, have been the great secondary means of the propagation in that portion of the world of Christian civiliza- tion. In the West, Roman law, Roman Christian- ity, and Roman power went together into the most remote regions, and won their triumphs on the same fields and by the use of the same Latin language. By means of this Latin language Roman civilization was presented to the minds of the barbarians as including many things outside the domain of force, and conquered them, when force failed, by appeals to their reason and their hearts. It was the Latin

? John xi. 50, 51. * Dr. Charles J. Stillé (late Provost of the University of Pennsylvania), in Studies on Medieval History (Philadelphia, 1882), p. 89. 9—

6 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

language in the service of the Church, and in the administration of the law of the empire, which taught the barbarians in what the true power and glory of Rome and the perpetuity of her system consisted ; and thus was made an important step in their preparation for the reception of that civiliza- tion of which the Roman language was the vehicle, as the Roman organization was the motive force.”

The Hebrew is the language of religion, the Greek the language of culture, the Latin the lan- guage of law and empire. The oldest revelations of God to one nation are recorded in Hebrew; but the last revelation to all nations is recorded. in Greek, to be reproduced in the course of time in all the languages of the earth.

SPREAD OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE.

There is a remarkable providence in the general spread of this rich and noble tongue throughout the civilized world before the advent of our Saviour: first by the conquests of Alexander, the greatest of Greeks, and afterwards by Julius Cesar, the greatest Ὁ of Romans—both of them unconscious forerunners of Christ.

The Greek was spoken in Greece, in the islands of the Aigean Sea, in Asia Minor, in Egypt, aye Sicily, and Southern Italy.

It was at the same time the medium of inter- national intercourse in the whole Roman empire, which stretched from the Libyan Desert to the banks of the Rhine, and from the river Euphrates to the Straits of Gibraltar, and embraced the civil-

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. +

ized world, with a population of about one hundred and twenty millions of souls. It was the language of government, law, diplomacy, literature, and trade. It occupied the position and exerted the influence of the Latin in the Middle Ages, of the French in the eighteenth century, and of the English in the nineteenth. In Paul’s language the term “ Hellen,” or Greek, is synonymous with “ the civilized world,” as distinct from the barbarians, and with “ Gentiles,” as distinct from the Jews.’

Even in the capital of the Roman empire the Greek was the favorite language at the imperial court among literary men, artists, lovers, and trades- men. The Greeks and Greek-speaking Orientals were the most intelligent and most enterprising people among the middle classes. The Latin clas- -sics were but successful imitators of Greek poets, historians, philosophers, and orators. Paul, a Roman citizen, wrote his Epistle to the Romans in Greek, and the names of the converts mentioned in the six- teenth chapter are mostly Greek. The early bishops and divines of Rome were Greeks by descent or education, or both. Pope Cornelius addressed the churches in the Hellenic language in the middle of the third century. The Apostles’ Creed, even in the Roman form, was originally composed in Greek. The Roman liturgy (ascribed to Clement of Rome) was Greek. The inscriptions in the oldest cata- combs, and the epitaphs of the popes down to the middle of the third century, are Greek. The early

Ψ»».

* Rom. i. 14, Ἕλληνες καὶ βάρβαροι; ver. 16, Ἰουδαῖος καὶ Ἕλλην.

8 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW. TESTAMENT.

fathers of the Western Church—Clemens Romanus, Hermas, Gajus, Irenzeus, Hippolytus — wrote in Greek. The old Latin version of the Bible was not made for Italy (although improperly called “ Itala’’), but for the provinces, especially for North Africa. It was not till the close of the second century that Christian theology assumed a Latin dress in the writings of the African Minutius Felix and Tertul- lian, and even Tertullian hesitated a while whether he should not rather write in Greek.’

THE JEWS AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE.

The Jews of the Dispersion were all more or less familiar with Greek, and hence called Hellenists, in distinction from the “ Hebrews” in Palestine and from the “ Hellenes,” or native Greeks.* They were very numerous in all the cities of the empire, espe- cially in Alexandria, Antioch, and Rome, and en-

1 On the use of the Greek language in imperial Rome, see Friedliinder, Sittengesch. Roms, i. 142, 481 (4th ed.); Caspari, Quellen zur Gesch. des Taufsymbols (with reference to the Roman Creed), iii. 267-466; Lightfoot, Com. on Philippians, p. 20; De Rossi, Roma Sotteran. ii. 27 sqq. (on the Catacomb of St. Callistus) ; Renan, Marc-Auréle, p.454 sqq. Renan says that even after the Latin language prevailed Greek letters were often employed, and that the only Latin Church in the middle of the second century was the Church of North Africa. On the origin of the Latin Bible, see the editions and discussions of Vercellone, Rénsch, Reusch, E. Ranke, and especially Ziegler, Die lat. Bibeliibersetzungen vor Hieronymus, Miinchen, 1879.

3 Ἑλληνιστῆς, Acts vi. 1; xi. 20, etc., must not be confounded with Ἕλλην, comp. Acts xiv. 1; xviii.4; Rom. i. 14, 16; ii. 9, 10; Gal. iii. 28, ete. It is from ἑλληνίζω, to Hellenize, i. 6. to speak the Greek language and to imitate Greek manners; as we use the term “to Romanize” of those who lean to the Roman Church.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 9

joyed, since the time of Julius Cesar, who favored them as a wise and liberal statesman, special protec- tion for the exercise of their religion. In Rome itself they numbered from twenty to thirty thousand souls, had seven synagogues and three cemeteries (with Greek and a few Latin inscriptions). They were mostly descendants of slaves and captives of Pompey, Cassius, and Antony. They occupied a special quarter (the Fourteenth Region) beyond the Tiber. They were the same people then as they are now in all countries: they carried on their little trades in old clothes, broken glass, sulphur matches ; they observed their peculiar customs; they emerged occasionally from poverty and filth to wealth and honor, as bankers, physicians, and astrologers; and they attracted the mingled wonder, contempt, and ridicule of the Roman historians and satirists. But while heathen Rome only survives in the memory of history and the shapeless ruins of her temples, theatres, and triumphal arches, that despised race still lives: a burning bush which is never consumed, an imperishable monument of a history of thousands of years—a history of divine revelations and blessings, of human disobedience and ingratitude, of honor and disgrace, of happiness and misery, of cruel persecu- tion and martyrdom ; a race without country, scat- tered among enemies, yet unalterable in its creed, alone in its recollections and hopes, miraculously preserved for some important action in the conclud- ing chapter of the history of Christianity.

As the Hellenists spoke Greek, we need not won- der that not only the Epistle to the Romans, but

3

10 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

even the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Epistle of James “to the twelve tribes which are of the Dis- persion,” were written in that language.

Even in Palestine and among the strict Hebrews who preferred their native Aramaic, the Greek lan- guage was extensively known and spoken, especially on the western sea-coast, in Galilee, and Decapolis. Gaza, Askalon, Caesarea Stratonis, Gadara, Hippos, Scythopolis (Bethshan ), Sebaste, Ceesarea Philippi (Paneas) were Greek cities in which the Greek was spoken exclusively or predominantly. The northern part of Galilee, owing to its mixed popu- lation, was called Galilee of the Gentiles (Isa. ix. 1; Matt. iv. 15). Palestine was, to a large extent, a bilingual country, like some of the Swiss cantons, Alsace, Lorraine, Belgium, Holland, Posen, Wales, Eastern Canada, the German counties of Pennsyl- vania, and other border regions in modern times. Many Jews had Greek names, as the seven deacons of the congregation at Jerusalem.’

This city was the stronghold of the Jewish faith and language, of prejudice and bigotry,’ but could not resist altogether the influence of the age. The Herodian family had foreign tastes and _ habits. Jerusalem had over four hundred synagogues, and was inhabited and visited by Jews and proselytes

? Acts vi. 5: Stephen, Philip, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolas. They may have been Hellenists, and elected in defer- ence to the complaints of the Grecian Jews, but they resided in Jeru- salem.

? This religious bigotry denounced all foreign learning as dangerous. Rabbi Eliezer said: “ He who teaches his son Greek is like one who eats

pork.” 2

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 11

1

‘from every nation under heaven.”’ The number of Jews present at the Passover, according to Jose- phus, sometimes exceeded two millions.” The Greek translation of the Old Testament was as much used as the Hebrew or Aramaic original. The Jewish Apocrypha were written in Greek (though some of them first in Hebrew). The two principal Jewish scholars of the first century, Philo and Josephus, wrote their works in Greek.’

1 Acts ii. 5, The Jerusalem Talmud gives four hundred and eighty as the number of synagogues. See Lightfoot on Acts vi. 9.

2 Josephus mentions even three millions as being present in Jerusalem under Cestius Gallus at the Passover, A.D. 65 (Bell. Jud. ii. 14,3). He also states (vi. 9,3) that the number of paschal lambs slain at this Pass- over, as reported to Nero, was 256,500, which, allowing no more than ten persons to each lamb, would give us 2,565,000 as the number of persons present. He gives the number 2,700,200, which comes nearer his former statement, and includes all others who could not partake of the sacrifice.

8. Josephus, who was born and educated in Jerusalem, wrote his history of the Jewish War first in Hebrew, “for the barbarians in the interior ;” afterwards in Greek, for “those under Roman dominion” (Bell. Jud. procem.1). He concludes his Antiquities (xx. 11, § 2) with the following passage, which is characteristic of his vanity, and shows the proud con- tempt of the Jews for foreign languages at that time: “Now, after having completed the work, I venture to say that no other person, whether he were a Jew or a foreigner, had he ever so great an inclination to do it, could so accurately (ἀκριβῶς) deliver this history to the Greeks. For those of my own nation freely acknowledge that I far exceed them in learning belonging to Jews; I have also taken a great deal of pains to acquire the learning of the Greeks, and understand the elements of the Greek language, although, on account of the habitual use of the paternal tongue, I cannot pronounce Greek with sufficient accuracy (ἀκρίβειαν). For with us those are not encouraged who learn the languages of many nations, and so adorn their discourses with the smoothness of their periods ; because this sort of accomplishment is regarded as common, not only to all sorts of freemen, but to as many of the servants as are inclined to learn them. But we give those only the testimony of being wise men

12 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

From these facts, as well as from the numerous Greek names of persons and places, Greek coins and inscriptions, we may safely infer that during the first two centuries of our era the higher classes in Pales- tine, especially in Samaria (Sebaste), were quite familiar with the Greek language, and that the peo- ple generally had a partial knowledge of it sufficient for practical intercourse and commerce.’

CHRIST AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE.

There are two extreme views on the language used by our Lord. The one is that he spoke only the Hebrew vernacular; the other, that he spoke. Greek only, or more than Hebrew.’ The natural view, which accords best with the facts already stated, is that he used both languages—the vernacu- lar Aramaic in ordinary intercourse with his disci- ples and the Jewish people, the Greek occasionally when dealing with strangers and Gentiles.*

who are fully acquainted with our laws, and are able to explain the sacred books.”

1 For a thorough discussion of this subject, with references to Josephus, Cicero, Seneca, Pliny, Strabo, Appian, Diodorus, and other authorities, see Hug, Finleit. in die Schr. des N. Test. (3d ed. 1826), ii. 30-60, translated by Robinson, “ Bibl. Repository,” Andover, 1831, p. 530-551. Schiirer, in his Neutestamentl. Zeitgesch., p. 376-385, comes to the same conclusion.

2 So De Rossi (who wrote against Diodati), Pfannkuche, Mill, Michaelis, Marsh, Kuin6l, and others.

3. So Isaac Vossius, Diodati, Alex. Roberts, S.G. Green. The last states (Grammar of the Gr. Test. p. 168): “It was the Greek of the Septuagint, in all probability, our Lord and his apostles generally spoke. The dialect of Galilee was not a corrupt Hebrew, but a provincial Greek.”

* So Hug, Binterim, Wiseman (Hore Syriace, Rom. 1828, i. 69 sqq.), Credner, Bleek, Reuss, Thiersch, Robinson (/.c. p.316), Westcott, Hadley,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 18

Christ was born in Judza, but grew up in Naza- reth, and spent thirty years of his private life and the greater part of his public ministry in Galilee. All his apostles—with the exception of the traitor —were Galileans, and could be known by their pro- nunciation. “Thy speech bewrayeth thee,” said the servants of the high-priest in Jerusalem to Peter when he denied his connection with “Jesus the Galilean.” ’ The woman of Samaria recognized our Lord by his speech and dress as a Jew, and the proud rulers contemptuously called him a Galilean.’ As he became like us in all things, sin only excepted, we have no reason to exempt him from those inno- cent limitations which are inseparable from race and nationality. He spoke, therefore, in all proba- bility the vernacular Aramaic, or Syro-Chaldaic, with the provincialisms and the pronunciation of Galilee.’

Delitzsch. See the older literature on the subject in Hase, Leben Jesu, p. 72 (5th ed.), and Reuss, Gesch, der heil. Schr. N. Test. i. 30 (5th ed.).

* Matt. xxvi. 73, ἡ λαλιά σου δῆλόν σε ποιεῖ; Mark xiv. 70; Luke xxii. 59. See Wetstein, zn doc., for examples of various provincial dialects of Hebrew or Aramaic. The Galilzans (like the Samaritans) confounded the gutturals ἐξ, 9, ΓΙ, and used Τὸ for UW. The Babylonian Talmud says that they paid no attention to the correctness of speech. The word for thunder, ragesh, in Boanerges (Mark iii. 17), and Rabbunit (Mark x. 51; John-xx. 16) for Rabbéni, or Ribboni, are said to be Galilean provincial- isms. See Grimm, s.v., and Keim, Gesch. Jesu von Naz. iii. 560 note.

? John iv. 9; vii. 52; Luke xxiii. 6.

* Prof. Delitzsch, who is excellent authority on the languages of the Bible and Jewish usages at the time of Christ, says, in an essay in the “Daheim” (as quoted by Bohl, Die Alttest. Citate im Ν. T. p. 543): “ Der Herr hatte auch schlechthin nur ihm eigenthiimliche Worte und Wen- dungen, wie wenn er besonders feierliche Ausspriiche mit amen, aména (bei Johannes: Wahrlichywahrlich, ich sage) zu beginnen pflegte, wesshalb er in der Apokalypse als der treue und wahrhaftige Zeuge, ‘der Amen’ genannt

14 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

The Evangelists have preserved a few examples of the speech of our Lord, and these isolated sounds from his lips still re-echo in all languages. He raised the daughter of Jairus with the words: Zalitha cuma (“ Damsel, arise’’).". He opened the ears of the deaf man with Hphphatha (“ Be opened”).* He exclaim- ed on the Cross, in the language of the 22d Psalm: Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani ? (“ My God, my God, why hast Thou forsaken me?’).* He addressed Paul on the way to Damascus in the Hebrew tongue, which reached the quick of his sensibilities: “ Shatl, Shai,

wird (iii.14). Aber ihrer Grundlage nach war seine Sprache die seines Volkes und Landes. Das Christenthum ist ein galildisches Gewdchs. Schon die Namen, die wir fiihren, verrathen es ; der Name Thomas ist griechisch-ara- mdisch, der Name Simon ist eigenthiimlich paldstinisch-aramdisch, und der Name Magdalena stammt aus Magdala in der schinen Landschaft am galildischen Meere. Ja, wir alle reden, auch ohne es zu wissen, in ara- mdischen, in paldstinischen Worten. Wenn wir Jesus als Messias bekennen, wenn wir des Herrn Mahi das neutestamentliche Passa nennen, wenn wir zu Gott mit dem kindlichen Abba beten, so sind dies die aramdischen Worte MESCHICHA, PASCHA, ABBA, und wenn wir den Namen Jesu aussprechen und mit dem Mariaruf RassBuni ihm zu Fiissen fallen, so sind dies pald- stinisch-galildische Formen. Mit dem Friedensgrusse ScHELAMA LECHON! begriisste auch noch der Auferstandene seine Jiinger, und mit einem Zurufe in dieser Sprache: Scuat., ScHAUL, LEMA REDAFT JATHI? (Saul, Saul, warum verfolgst Du mich?) brachte der Erhéhete den Saulus vor Damask zur Besinnung (Apg. xxvi. 14). Wie Saulus Worte hérte, ohne ewe Gestalt zu sehen, so miissen auch wir zufrieden sein, uns den Klang und der Art seiner Rede naher gebracht zu haben—Er selbst bleibt iiber die M dglichkeit der Beschauung erhaben; nicht nur seine Herrlichkeitsgestalt, auch schon seine Knechtsgestalt blendet uns, dass wir die Augen abwenden miissen, ném~ lich die Ihn sinnlich fixiren wollenden A ugen—wir werden [hn einst sehen von Angesicht, aber diesseits lasst Er sich nur erschauen mit Augen des Glaubens.”

* Mark v. 41 (Ταλειϑά κούμ in Westcott and Hort).

2 Mark vii. 34. ᾿Εφφαϑά is a Greek corrupt transliteration of Ethpha- thah, the Syriac imperative Ethpael.

8 Matt, xxvii. 46. Mark (xv. 34) gives the Aramaic form, Eloi, Eloi

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 15

why persecutest thou me?’* In the sacred heart- domain of religion the mother-tongue is always more effective than any acquired speech. Paul himself, when he wished to gain a more favorable hearing from the’ excited populace at Jerusalem, appealed to them in their native Hebrew.’

At the same time we cannot suppose that Jesus was ignorant of a language which was familiar to the educated classes even in the interior of Palestine, and in which his own disciples, the unlearned fish- ermen of Galilee, preached and wrote. And, if he understood Greek, he must have spoken it on all proper occasions, as when he conversed with for- eigners, with the Syro-Pheenician woman,’ with the heathen centurion,‘ with the Greeks who called on him shortly before his passion,’ and especially at the tribunal of Pontius Pilate and King Herod. No interpreter is mentioned, and a Roman governor liable to be recalled at any time was not likely to acquire the knowledge of a difficult provincial lan- guage when he could get along with Greek.*

1 Acts xxvi. 14, Σαούλ, Σαούλ. In all other passages the Greek form Σαῦλος is given; see ix. 1, etc.

2 Acts xxi. 40; xxii. 2. Josephus did the same in the name of Titus, as his interpreter, during the siege. Comp. Bell. Jud. v.9, § 2; vi. 2, § 1, 5; vi. 6,§ 2. From these examples it appears that the common people either knew no Greek, or at all events not as well as Aramaic.

3 Who is called γυνὴ Ἑλληνίς, Mark vii. 26.

* Matt. viii. 5.

5 John xii. 20. They are called “ Hellenes” (Ἑλληνες), not Hellenists (Ἑλληνισταῖ) or Grecian Jews, and were probably proselytes of the gate, or heathens leaning to the Jewish religion.

6 The provincial governors gave judgment in Latin or Greek. Cicero, Crassus, and Mucianus used Greek in Greece and Asia. The Greek was

16 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

THE APOSTLES AND THE GREEK LANGUAGE.

As to the apostles, they grew up with a knowl- edge of both languages, although, of course, the Hebrew was more natural to them. Whatever may have been the pentecostal gift of tongues, they needed no miraculous endowment with a knowl- edge of Greek.’ They acquired and used it like other people of their age and nation. They learned the Hebrew at home and in the synagogue; the Greek on the street and from living intercourse with Gentiles. They had no book knowledge of Greek, and cared only for its practical use. As Galilewans, they were brought into frequent contact with heathen neighbors. Matthew, from his former occupation as a tax-gatherer, would naturally be a homo bilinguis. Paul was of Hebrew parentage, and brought up in Jerusalem at the feet of Gama- liel, so that he could call himself “4 Hebrew of the Hebrews ;” yet he was not only a master of the Greek language as applied to Christian truths, but had also, perhaps from his early youth, as a native of Tarsus, which was famous for Greek schools, some knowledge of secular Greek literature, as his quotations from three poets show.’

the court-language of the proconsuls of Asia and Syria. The procurators of Palestine would not make an exception. See Hug, ἰ, 6.

* Eusebius, who as bishop (and probably a native) of Caesarea, was well acquainted with Palestine, declares (Dem. Evang. lib. iii.) that the apos- ‘tles, before the resurrection of Christ, knew only their vernacular Syriac language. But this was merely his private opinion, and he himself wrote all his books in Greek.

? Aratus, Acts xvii. 28; Menander, 1 Cor. xv. 35; and Epimenides, Tit. i, 12, See my Church History, revised ed, (1882), i, 288 sqq,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 17

The most conclusive proof of the familiarity of the apostles and evangelists with Greek is the fact that they composed the Gospels and Epistles in that ‘Janguage, and that they quote the Old Testament usually from the current Greek version.

THE GREEK AND THE ENGLISH.

Thus the language of a little peninsula, by its beauty and elasticity, vigor and grace, the wealth of its literature, and the providential course of events, had become at the time of Christ the language of the civilized world, and conquered even the conquer- ing Romans. The noblest mission of this noblest of tongues was accomplished when it became the organ of the everlasting gospel of the Saviour of mankind. This fact secures to the Greek for all time to come a superiority over all the languages of the earth, and the first claim on the attention of the biblical scholar.

Next to the Greek, no language has a nobler and grander mission for the extension of Christianity and Christian civilization than the English. It has already spread much farther than the Greek or Latin ever did. From its island home in the Northern Sea it has gone forth to lands and continents un- known to the apostles, fathers, and reformers. It _@arries with it the energy and enterprise of the Saxon race, the treasures of the richest literature, the love of home and freedom, and a profound reverence for the Bible. It is predestinated and adapted by its composition and history to become more and more the cosmopolitan language of mod- ern times.

18 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

“Among all the modern languages,” says a dis- tinguished German philologist, “ none has, by giving up and confounding all the laws of sound, and by . cutting off nearly all the inflections, acquired greater strength and vigor than the English. Its fulness of free middle sounds, which cannot be tanght, but only learned, is the cause of an essential force of expression such as perhaps never stood at the com- mand of any other language of men. Its entire, highly intellectual, and wonderfully happy structure and development are the result of a surprisingly intimate marriage of the two noblest languages in modern Europe—the Germanic and the Romance; the former, as is well known, supplying in far larger proportion the material groundwork, the latter the intellectual conceptions. As to wealth, intellectual- ity, and closeness of structure, none of all the living languages can be compared with it. In truth the English language, which by no mere accident has produced and upborne the greatest and most com- manding poet of modern times as distinguished from the ancient classics—I can, of course, only mean Shakespeare— may with full propriety be called a world-language; and, like the English people, it seems destined hereafter to prevail even more extensively than at present in all the ends of the earth.” ’

The English language is now the chief organ for the spread of the Word of God. This has been strikingly illustrated in the year 1881 by the

1 Jacob Grimm, Ueber den Ursprung der Sprache (Berlin, 1852), p. 50. Comp. Schaff, The English Language (Nashville, 1887).

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 19

extraordinary success of the Revised Version of the New Testament, prepared by two co-operative com- mittees, in England and the United States. More than a million of copies were ordered from the British University presses before the day of publica- tion (May 17, 1881), and more than twenty reprints of different sizes and prices appeared in the United States before the close of the year, so that within a few months nearly three millions of copies were sold. This fact stands alone in the history of litera- ture, and furnishes the best proof that the old book which we call the New Testament is more popular and powerful than ever, no matter what infidels may say to the contrary. Among the two freest and most progressive nations of the earth the Bible is revered as the guardian angel of public and private virtue, the pillar of freedom and civilization, the sacred ark of every household, the written conscience of every soul.

THE MACEDONIAN DIALECT.

The Greek language has come down to us, like the old Teutonic language, in a number of dialects and sub-dialects. The literature is chiefly deposited in four: 1. The onto dialect, known from in- scriptions and grammarians, and from remains of Alcgeus, Sappho, and Erinna. 2. The Doric, rough but vigorous, immortalized by the odes of Pindar and the idyls of Theocritus. 3. The Ionic, soft and elastic, in which Homer sang the Iliad and Odyssey, and Herodotus told his history. 4. The Artic dialect differs little from the Ionic, unites energy and dignity with grace and melody, and is —

90 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

represented by the largest literature, the tragedies of Aischylus, Sophocles, Euripides, the comedies of Aristophanes, the histories of Thucydides and Xen- ophon, the philosophical dialogues of Plato, and the orations of Demosthenes.’

The Attic dialect, owing to its literary wealth and the military conquests of Alexander the Great, the pupil of Aristotle, came to be the common spoken and written language not only in Greece proper, but over the Macedonian provinces of Syria and. Egypt. By its diffusion it lost much of its peculiar stamp, and absorbed a number of foreign words and inflections, especially from the Orient. But what it lost in purity it gained in popularity. It was eman- cipated from the trammels of nationality and intel- lectual aristocracy, and became cosmopolitan. It grew less artistic, but more useful.

In this modified form, the Attic Greek received the name of the Macrpontan or ALEXANDRIAN, and also the Common or Hetienic language (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος or Ἑλληνικὴ διάλεκτος). It was used by Aristotle, who connects the classic Attic with the Hellenic, Polybius, Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus, Dio Cassius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, A¢lian, Hero- dian, Arrian, and Lucian.

Examples of new words: ayaSoupyeiv, αἰχμαλωτίζειν, ἀντίλϑτρον, ἀποκαραδοκεῖν, ἐλλογεῖν, εὐκαιρεῖν, δικαιοκρισία, νυχϑήμερον, ὀλιγό-

1 On the Greek dialects, compare the large work of Ahrens, De Grace Lingue Dialectis (1839, 1843, 2 vols.); Merry, Specimens of Greek Dialects (Oxford, 1875); the well-known grammars of Prof. G. Curtius of Leipzig, and Kiihner; and Gustav Meyer, Griech. Grammatik (Leipzig, 1880), the introduction and the literature there indicated. Also Wilkins, in “ Encycl. Brit.” xi, 131-135.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 21

πιστος, οἰκοδεσπότης, πεποίϑησις. From Egypt: πάπυρος, πυραμίς, βάϊον. From Persia: ἄγγαρος, γάζα, μάγοι, παράδεισος, τιάρα. From the Latin: κῆνσος, κουστωδία, λεγιών. From the Semitic: ἀρραβών, ζιζάνιον, ῥαββεί. The Alexandrians had also a special orthography ; they exchanged letters—as αἱ and εἰ, ε and 7, y and x—and they retained the p before ψΨ and 99 (as in λήμψομαι). See Moulton’s Winer, p. 53. These peculiarities are found in the best MSS. of the LXX. and Greek Testament, and have been introduced into the text by Lachmann and the recent critical editors.

Professor _Immer (Hermeneutics of the N. T. p. 125) gives the following description of the distinctive characteristics of the Macedonian Greek: “ Besides the Atticisms, Ionicisms, Doricisms, and olicisms, the διάλεκτος κοινή shows still the following peculiarities: (a.) Words that occur seldom or only in poetical discourse in the old Greek now become more common, and pass over into plain prose, as, 6. g., μεσονύκτιον, Seoorvync, βρέχω, to moisten, ἔσϑω for goSiw, and others. (ὖ.) Words in use receive another form, as ἀνάϑεμα for avaSnpa, yeviowa for γενέϑλια, ἐκπαλαί for παλαί, χϑές for ἐχϑές, ixecia for ἰκετεία, μισϑαποδοσία for μισϑοδοσία, μονόφ- ϑάλμος for ἑτερύφϑαλμος, νουϑεσία for νουϑέτησις, ὀπτασία for ὄψις, ἡ ὁρκομοσία for τὰ ὁρκ.; ὁ πλησίον for ὁ πέλας, ποταπός for ποδαπός, ete. Especially frequent become verbal forms in -iZw, in -w pure instead of in -μι (6.9. ὀμνύω instead of durvvpe), formed from the perfect, as στήκω, sub- stantives in -μα. (c.) Words entirely new, mostly words formed through composition, make their appearance, as ἀντίλυτρον, ἀλεκτοροφωνία, ἀποκεφαλίζω, ἀγαϑοποιέω, αἰχμαλωτεύω, νυχϑήμερον, σιτομέτριον, et al, (d.) Words long familiar and current receive new meanings, as ἀνακλίνειν and ἀναπίπτειν, to recline at table; ἀποκριϑῆναι, to answer; ἀποτάσ- σεσϑαι, to take leave; δαίμων or δαιμόνιον, evil spirit; εὐχαριστεῖν, to thank; ξύλον, tree; παρακαλεῖν, to pray; στέγειν, to endure, to bear up; φϑάνειν, to come, to arrive; χρηματίζειν, to be called; ψωμίζειν, to eat, to nourish, οὐ al. In a grammatical point of view the following may be observed: (a.) Inflections of nouns and verbs occur which at an earlier period were either entirely unknown or peculiar to a single dialect; 6. g. the Doricism ἀφέωνται for ageivrat, the Holic optative ending in -ea, the ending of the second person of the present and future passive and middle in -« instead of in -ῃ, etc. (6.) Infrequency of the use of the dual, as, 6. g., δύσι instead of δυοῖν. (c.) Infrequency of the employment of the optative (in the Johannean writings it does not occur at all). (d.) The construing of certain verbs with other cases, especially with the accusative, as ἐπιϑυμεῖν τι instead of τινός, φοβεῖσϑαι ἀπό instead of ὑπό

92 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

and accusative, et al. (e.) The weakening of iva in the formule ϑέλω iva, λέγω iva, ἄξιος iva, and many others. (/f-) Use of the subjunctive instead of the optative after preterites, etc. A still greater degradation of the language finds place in the construction of ἵνα with the indicative, and not with the future only, but even with the present indicative, of σύν with the genitive, the confounding of the cases and tenses, etc. The latter peculiarities do not occur, however, in authors of Greek nationality, nor in educated authors.” (The translation is by Albert H. Newman, — Andover, 1877.)

THE HELLENISTIC DIALECT.

The Hellenic dialect assumed a strongly Hebraiz- ing character among the Grecian Jews or Hellenists, and as spoken by them it is called the HHellensstic dialect. It was especially current in Alexandria, where all nationalities mingled and adopted the Greek as their medium of commercial and social intercourse. This city, soon after its foundation by Alexander the Great (B.C. 332), became the chief seat of learning next to Athens, and the birthplace of the language of the New Testament. Immense libraries were collected under the Ptolemies, and every important work of dying Egyptian and Orien- tal learning was translated into Greek. :

The literature of the Hellenistic dialect is all of Jewish origin, and intimately connected with re- ligion. It embraces the Septuagint and the Jewish Apocrypha, which are incorporated in the Septua- gint, and passed from it into the Latin Vulgate. Philo (B.C. 20 to A.D. 40) and Josephus (A.D. 38- 103), who were well acquainted with Greek litera- ture, aimed at a pure style, which would commend their theological and historical writings to scholars of classical taste; but, after all, they could not conceal

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 23

the Hebrew spirit and coloring. The Hellenistic writings express Jewish ideas in Greek words, and carried the religion of the East to the nations of the West.

THE SEPTUAGINT.

The Septuagmt version of the Old Testament Scriptures was gradually made by Jewish scholars in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy IL., B.C. 285-247, and has survived the ravages of the Moslem conquerors. It laid the foundation for the Hellenistic idiom. It made the Greek the vehicle of Hebrew thought. It became the accepted Bible of the Jews of the dispersion, spread the influence of their religion among the Gentiles, and prepared the way for the introduction of Christianity. Thus an “altar was erected to Jehovah” not only “in the midst of the land of Egypt,” as the prophet foretold,’ . but all over the Roman empire.

The Septuagint is the basis of the Christian Greek. It is a remarkable fact, not yet sufficiently explained, that the great majority of the direct cita- tions of the Old Testament in the New, which amount to about 280," are taken from the Septua- gint, or at all events agree better with it than with the Hebrew original.

Compare on this subject, David McCalman Turpie, The Old Testament in the New (Lond. 1868); Ed. Bohl, Die A. 7. lichen Citate im N.T. (Wien,

1 Isa. xix. 19, 20, 25.

3 James Scott (Principles of New Testament Quotation, Edinb. 1875, Ῥ. 17 sq.) says: “ The whole number of repeated citations amounts to 290. Seventeen only of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament contain quotations from the Old. The single citations may be estimated at 226, and their whole number by repetition at 284.”

24 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

1878), and his Forschungen nach einer Volksbibel zur Zeit Jesu und deren Zusammenhang mit der Septuaginta- Vebersetzung (ibid. 1873); C. H. Toy, Quotations in the New Testament (New York, 1884), Turpie states the result of his examination (p. 266 sqq.) in five tables as follows:

A. 53 quotations agree with the original Hebrew and with the Septua-

gint (correctly rendered),

B. 10 quotations agree with the Hebrew against the Septuagint (which

is here incorrect). Ξ

C. 76 quotations differ from the Hebrew and from the Septuagint

(which has correctly rendered the passages).

D. 37 quotations differ from the Hebrew and agree with the Septuagint.

E. 99 quotations differ both from the Hebrew and the Septuagint, which

also differ from each other.

Bohl does not sum up his results, but goes carefully over the same number of passages, giving the New Testament quotation, the Hebrew original, and the Septuagint Version, with learned notes. He advances: the novel theory that Christ and the apostles quoted from a popular Aramaic Bible (Volksbibel)) which he thinks. was in common use at that time in Palestine, and which was substantially the Septuagint Version, or based on it: “ Die Septuaginta Uebersetzung ist die paldstinensische Bibel oder die Bibel im Vulgdrdialect geworden, und daher schreibt sich die Be- nutzung der LXX. im Neuen Testament.” But there is no trace of an Aramaic Targum before the time of Christ, nor of a Targum authorized by the Sanhedrin; and if it was based on the Septuagint, why did the apostles use a translation of a translation? The question still remains, why did they not quote from the Hebrew original, and how are the de- partures of the Septuagint from the Hebrew to be accounted for? It seems probable that they quoted mostly from memory, and that they were more familiar with the Septuagint than the Hebrew. The whole subject requires further investigation, and a new critical edition of the Septuagint on the basis of the Sinaitic and Vatican MSS. and all other sources combined. Important contributions are furnished by E. Nestle, Veteris Testamenti Greeci Codices Vaticanus et Sinaiticus cum textu recepto collati (Lips. 1880; 2d ed. 1886), and P. de Lagarde, Libri V. T. Grace (Pt. I. Gottingen, 1883).

Jesus himself quotes from the Septuagint, accord- ing to the evangelists.’ The apostles do it in their

1 Comp. Matt. iv. 4,7,10; ix. 13; xv.9; xxi. 16,42; Mark vii. 6; x. 7; xii. 10,11; Luke iii. 4-6; iv. 18,19; xxii. 37, Luke’s quotations are

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 25

discourses,’ and in their epistles.” Even Paul, who was educated at Jerusalem and thoroughly versed in rabbinical lore, usually agrees with the Septua- gint, except when he freely quotes from memory, or adapts the text to his argument.’

THE APOSTOLIC GREEK.

. We are now prepared to assign to the New Tes- tament idiom its peculiar position. It belongs to the Hellenistic dialect, as distinct from the classical Greek, and it shares with the Septuagint its sacred and Hebraizing character, as distinct from the secu- lar Hellenic literature; but it differs from all pre- vious dialects by its spirit and contents. It is the Greek used for the first time for a new religion. In this respect it stands alone, and belongs to but one period, the period of the first proclamation and intro-

all from the Septuagint with the exception of one, vii. 27. The same is the case substantially with Mark, with the exception of i. 2, which is from the Hebrew, and embodies his reflection. Matthew departs from the Septuagint and quotes from the Hebrew when he introduces a pro- phetic passage with his formula ἵνα mAnpwS7, as i. 23; ii. 6, 15, 18; iv. 15; viii. 17; xii. 18-21; xiii. 35; xxi. 5. This remarkable difference has been pointed out by Bleek (Beitrdge zur Evangelienkritik, 1846, p. 57), and is confirmed by Holtzmann (Dze Synoptischen Evangelien, 1863, p. 259).

1 Acts i. 20; ii. 17-21, 25-28, 34, 35; iii. 22, 25; iv. 25, 26; vii. 42-50; xv. 15-18; xxviii. 26, 27.

2 James ii. 23; iv. 6; 1 Pet. i. 16; 11. 6, 22; iii. 10-12; iv. 18; v. 5.

3. Gal. iii. 13; Rom. ii. 24; iii. 4, 10-18; iv. 3; ix. 27-29; x.11, 21; xi.9, 10, 26, 27; 1 Cor. i. 19; vi. 16; Eph. v.31; vi. 2. Specimens of correc- tions of the Sept. according to the Hebrew: 1 Cor. iii. 19; xiv. 21; xv. 54, 55; Rom. ix. 17; Eph. iv. 8. Comp. Weiss, Theol. des N. T. 3d ed. p. 275; Kautzsch, De Veteris Test. locis a Paulo ap. allegatis (Lips. 1869). Kautzsch maintains that Paul never intentionally departs from the Septua- gint, although he seems to have in view sometimes both the Hebrew and the Greek. Weiss allows a more frequent use of the Hebrew-

4

26 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

duction of Christianity. It is of itself a strong argu- ment for the genuineness of the New Testament.

The Greek of the Apostolic fathers, the Apolo- gists, and the ecclesiastical writers of the third and fourth centuries generally, differs considerably from that of the New Testament: it has much less of the Hebrew element, and gathered during the theologi- cal controversies a number of new technical terms, or infused new meaning into old words.’

The New Testament idiom consists of three ele- ments, which we may compare with the three ele- ments of man—the σῶμα, ψυχή, and νοῦς or πνεῦμα. It has a Greek body, animated by a Hebrew soul, and inspired and ruled by a Christian spirit. It grew naturally out of the situation and mission of the Apostolic Church, and was, and is still, admirably suited for its purposes. It is more cosmopolitan than any other Greek dialect. The New Testament in classical Greek might have been understood and appreciated by the learned few, but not by the masses of Jews and Gentiles. And the same applies to translations. King James’s and Luther’s versions reach the hearts and understandings of the common

1 Especially in the Nicene age. Such terms are οὐσία, ὑπόστασις, πρόσωπον (as applied to the persons of the Trinity), ὁμοούσιος, ὁμοιού- σιος, ἑτεροούσιος (of the Son of God in his relation to the Father), évocp- κωσις, ἐνανθρώπησις, ἰδιότης, ἀγεννησία. γεννησία, ἐκπόρευσις, πέμψις (of the Holy Spirit), ϑεοτύόκος (of the Virgin Mary), ἕνωσις ὑποστατική, κοινωνία ἰδιωμάτων, περιχώρησις (of the inner trinitarian relations), ἀνυποστασία or ἐνυποστασία (the impersonality of the human nature of Christ), etc. For ecclesiastical Greek, see Suicer, Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus e Patribus Grecis, Amst. 2d ed. 1728, 2 vols. fol.; C. du Fresne (du Cange), Glossarium ad Scriptores Medie et Infime Grecitatis, Lugd. 1688, 2 tom. fol.; and E. A. Sophocles, Greek Lex. of the Roman and Byzantine Periods. Boston, 1870; now in course of revision by Dr. Dhayer (1887)

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 27

people as no classical diction of Milton or Goethe could do.

During the seventeenth century there was much useless controversy between the “ Purists,” who de- fended the classical character of the New Testament Greek, and the “ Hebraists,’ who pointed out its Hebraisms. Both parties ignored the necessity and beauty of its composite character for its cosmopoli- tan mission.’

HEBRAISMS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT.

The Hebrew element is the connecting link be- tween the Mosaic and the Christian dispensation. It pervades all the apostolic writings, but not in the same degree. It is strongest in Matthew, Mark, the first two chapters of Luke, and in the Apocalypse. The hymns of the Virgin Mary (Magnificat), of Zacharias (Lenedictus), and of Simeon (Mune De- mittis) are entirely Hebrew in spirit and tone, and can be literally rendered so as to read like Hebrew psalms. But on the whole Luke and the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews Hebraize least of all. Not a few Hebrew words—as Amen, Eden, Messiah, Manna, Hallelujah, Sabbath—have passed into mod- ern languages, and remain as perpetual memorials of the earliest revelations of God. The Hebraisms are not grammatical blunders or blemishes, but neces- sary supplements of the defects of the secular Greek.

1 See the literature on this controversy in Reuss, p. 37. He says: “ Das neutestamentliche Idiom ist nicht aus einer rohen Sprachenmischung hervorgegangen, sondern stellt sich uns dar als der erste Schritt des im Osten aufgegangenen Lichtes zur Bewdiltigung und Durchdringung der abendlin- dischen Gesittung.” Comp. also Tregelles, in Horne’s Introd. iv. 21-23: and Bleek-Mangold’s Fini. i. d. N. Test. p. 78 (4th ed. 1886).

28 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

They represent new ideas which require new words. They impart to the apostolic writings the charm of the antiqueness and elevated simplicity of the Old Testament. :

With the exception of a few pure or old Hebrew words (Amen, Hallelujah, Hosanna, Sabbath, which were borrowed from the temple service, and are found in the Septuagint), the Hebraisms of the New Testament belong to the later Hebrew or Aramaic (Syro-Chaldaic) dialect which, after the return from the Babylonian exile, had gradually superseded the older as the living language of the people. The Hebrew still continued to be the sacred language (w3pm jit), and the Scripture lessons were read from the Hebrew text, but were followed by Aramaic translations (Targumim) and sermons (Midrashim).’ |

I. Hebrew words for which the classical Greek has no equivalent. I do not claim completeness for this and the following lists, but they embrace the most important words.

ἀβαδδών = VIAN (destruction), pr. name of the angel prince of the infernal regions, Rev. ix. 11.

aBBa=NaX (Heb. 38), father, Mark xiv. 36; Rom. viii. 15; Gal. iv. 6.

ἁκελδαμά (W. and H., aceddapay)=R2F ὉΠ, Jield of blood, Acts i. 19.

ἁλληλουιά Ξ- ΠΙΆ 49953, hallelujah, praise ye Jehovah (Heb.), Rev. xix. 1, 3, 4,6. Comp. Ps. civ. 35.

1 The word éGpaiori, hebraice, is used for chaldaice, John v.2; xix. 13, 17, 20; Acts ix. 11; xvi. 16; Rev. ix. 11; xvi. 16; and also in Josephus.

2 The Talmud is written partly in Hebrew (the Mishna), partly in Aramaic (the Gemara), but mixed with exotic words from various lan- guages—Greek, Latin, Coptic, Persian, Arabic—and disfigured by gram- matical irregularities and barbarous spelling. See Briill, /remdsprachliche Redensarten in den Talmuden und Midrashim (Leipz. 1869).

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 29

ἀμήν = 72% (Heb.), truly, verily, Matt. vi. 18 (2), Rom. 1, 25; ix. 5; Rev. iii. 14, etc.

ἀρραβών = ἸΞῚ9 (Heb.), a pledge, earnest (a mercantile term of Pheenician origin), 2 Cor. i. 22; v.5; Eph. i. 14.

βάτος = = ὯΞ (Heb.), bath (a liquid measure of about 8} gallons), Luke xvi, 5, 6.

βεελζεβούλ = dIDY ὌΣΞ (Aram.), lord of dung (deus stercoris), and

βεελζεβούβ = AAAI bya (Heb. ), lord of flies, the name of a god of the Philistines at Ekron. The former is a contemptuous Jewish by-name of this idol, and was applied also to the prince of demons, Matt. xii. 24, 27; Mark iii. 22; Luke xi. 15, 18, 19.

Mitivig big tk (Wa) τιν 923, Sons of Thunder, Mark iii.17. A name given to the sons of Zebedee (comp. Luke ix. 54).

βύσσος = ΥΞ (Sept.), fine linen, Luke xvi. 19; Rev. xviii. 12, Also βύσσινον, Rev. xix. 8,

yaBBaSa=NNA35 (Gr. λιϑόστρωτον), back, ridge, pavement ; the place where Pilate gave sentence against Jesus, John xix. 18,

yéevva = DSF N49, the valley of Hinnom, Josh. xv. 8; Gehenna, hell, Matt. v. 22; Mark ix. 43; Luke xii. 5, etc. Not to be confounded with Hades or Sheol, as is done in the A. V,

γολγοϑά (al. ἃ) = = NMP374 (Heb. mph>3), skull (κρανίον, calva, calva- ria, whence our Calvary), the place of Christ’s crucifixion, an elevation (not a hill), so called from its conical form (not from skulls), Matt. xxvii. 33; Mark xv. 22; John xix. 17,

éBpatori, Westcott and Hort ἐβραϊστί (from SAY), Hebraice, in Hebrew (Aramaic), John v. 2; xix. 13, 17,20; Rev. ix.11, xvi. 16. |

ἐλωί ἐλωί (or ἠλεί ἠλεί, Heb. ">¥), λεμὰ caBaySavei, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me. Quotation from Ps. xxii.2. See Matt. xxvii. 46; Mark xv. 34. Mark gives the Syriac form, ἐλωΐ ἐλωί. In Matthew there are variations, but Westcott and Hort give éAwi in the text and ἠλεί in the margin.

ἐφφαϑά (Aram. ΓΞ δ), διανοίχϑητι, be opened, Mark vii. 84,

ζιζάνιον (Arab., Syr., Talm.), bastard wheat, tares, Matt. xiii. 25, ete.

κάμηλος = boa (Heb.), camel, Mark 1.6, Matt. iii. 4; xix. 24, ete. (Sept. Gen. xii. i6; xxiv. 10).

κιννάμωμον = ἼΩΣΡ (Heb.), cinnamon (an aromatic bark used for incense and perfume), Rev. xviii. 13,

ἰουδαΐζω (from M71", Judah), to Judaize, Gal. ii. 14; also ἐουδαϊσμός, i. 13; ἰουδαϊκῶς, ii. 14; ἰουδαϊκός, Tit. i. 14; ἰουδαῖος, Acts x. 18, etc.

κορβᾶν and kopBavac=ja Pp (Heb.), NIBP (Aram.), an offering, oblation, Mark vii, 11; Matt. xxvii, 6,

30 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

κύμινον = {2D (Heb.), cummin (Germ. Kiimmel), a low herb of the fennel kind, which produces aromatic seeds. λίβανος = M355 (Heb. from the verb 122, to be white), frankincense, Matt. ii. 11; Rev. xviii. 18. μαμωνᾶς = N2170N2, ἡ Ὁ, riches, Matt. vi. 24; Luke vi. 98. Comp. the Heb, M2528, Isa. xxxiii. 6 (Syoavpoi, LXX.); Ps. xxxvii.3 (πλοῦτος). Augustin says: “ Lucrum punice mammon dicitur.” μάννα (Heb. 12, in the Sept. τὸ μάν), manna, the miraculous food of the Israelites in the wilderness, John vi. 31, 49, 58; Heb. ix. 4; Rev. ii. 17. μαρὰν ἀϑά ΞΞ ΤΣ 370, the Lord cometh, 1 Cor. xvi. 22, μεσσίας = Nw (Heb, 11°07), the Anointed, the Messiah, John i. 41 (42); iv. 25. In all other passages the Greek equivalent, Χριστός (from χρίω, to anoint), is used. [pwpé = ΓΛ (Heb.), rebel (?), Matt. v. 22.}? πάσχα = NMOB (Heb. MOS), passover, Matt. xxvi. 17; John ii. 13; vi. 4; xviii. 39, ‘etc. Used in three different senses: (1) the pemchal lamb; (2) the paschal meal; (3) the paschal feast from the 14th to the 20th of Nisan. Mistranslated Laster in E. V., Acts xii. 4; correct in R. V. ῥαββί or ῥαββεί, ῥαββονί or ῥαββουνί = ἈΞ (Heb. from 33, much, great), 12, {27 (Chald.), my great one, my master, great master, John xx. 6; Mark x. 51, etc. The salutation of Hebrew teachers or doctors (διδάσκαλοι). Comp. the French Monsieur, Monseigneur. Rabboni or Rabbuni, John xx. 16, is the Galilean pronunciation for Ribboni. ῥακά (or ῥαχά, Tischendorf) = 8p") (Heb. P"), empty, worthless, Matt. v. 22. σαβαχϑανί ="INPIY (Chal.), thou hast forsaken me, Matt. xxii. 46. σαβαώϑ = MINX (Heb.), hosts, armies (κύριος σαβαώϑ, rina ms Lord of Hosts), Luke ii. 13; Rom. ix. 29; James v. 4. σάββατον = M2 (Heb.), rest, day of rest, Mark ii. 27, etc. Also the ‘plural σάββατα (Mark i. 21, ete.) ; σαββατισμός, a keeping of Sabbath, Sabbath rest (Heb. iv. 9); ἡ ἡμέρα τοῦ σαββάτου (MDE Di), the Sabbath day (John xix. 81; Luke iv. 16); ὁδὸς σαββάτου, a Sabbath-

1 This is usually considered as the vocative of the Greek μωρός, Sool, The E. R. recognizes the Hebrew derivation in the margin. The He- brew more means rebellious, heretical (Numb. xx. 10); but the Syriac more means κύριος, dominus. Dr. Fr. Field objects to the Hebrew derivation on the ground that Christ used the Syriac. Otium Norvicense (Oxf. 1881), Ῥ. 2. If the word is Greek we must put a Hebrew meaning into it, with reference to Ps, xiv. 1, where the atheist is called a fool ὦ», LXX. ἄφρων).

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 31

day’s journey, 2. 6. 6 stadia or 750 Roman paces, equal to about two thirds of an English mile (Acts i. 12) ; and προσάββατον, fore-Sabbath, Sabbath- eve (Mark xv. 42).

σατᾶν, caravac= 2 (Heb.), adversary, devil (διάβολος, ὁ πονηρός), Matt. xvi. 23; Mark viii. 33; Luke xxii. 3; 2 Cor. xii. 7, ete.

σάπφειρος = "BO (Heb.), sapphire (a precious stone, next in value to the diamond), Rev. xxi. 19 (Sept. Ex. xxiv. 10; xxviii. 18).

σάτον =NMNO (Heb. NO), a seah (a dry measure of about a peck and a half), Matt. xiii. 33.

σίκερα (τό, indecl.) = "2 (Heb.), sikera, strong drink, Luke i. 15.

συκάμινος = M2PW (Heb.), a sycamine tree, Luke xvii. 6 (Sept. 1 Kings x. 27, etc.).

ταλιϑά, κούμ = “ὮῬ}) δε, maiden, arise, Mark v. 41.

ὕσσωπος = Δ"ϊὺξ (Heb.), hyssop, John xix. 29; Heb. ix. 29 (1 Kings v. 3, etc.).

χερουβίμ = BID (Heb. plural from 34D), cherubim, Heb. ix. 5. Comp. the Greek γρύψ, γρυπός.

ὡσαννά = NI MP WAN (Ps. cxviii. 25), Hosanna, save now—a word of joyful acclamation, Matt. xxi. 9,15; Mark xi. 9,10; John xii. 13,

Proper names of persons are very numerous:

Κηφᾶς (Syr. 8D"D, Greek Πέτρος), Μαρία (Aramaic for the Hebrew 52), Μάρϑα (domina), Μάλχος (1272, King), Χουζᾶ (Luke viii. 3 ; see Westcott and Hort’s text), Ταβιϑά (Greek Δορκάς, Acts ix. 36, 40); Ἰακώβ or ᾿Ιάκωβος, ᾿Ιησοῦς, ᾿Ιωάννης, Μελχισεδέκ, Σαούλ or Σαῦλος, and many others. Also the names compounded with "3, son, as Barabbas (son of a father, or son of a rabbi), Bartholomew, Barjesus, Barjonas, Bartimzus, Barsabas, Barnabas.

Hebrew names of several places, as,

Armageddon (mount of Megiddé, Rev. xvi. 16), Bethlehem (House of Bread), Bethany (House of Dates), Bethphage (House of Figs), Bethesda (House of Mercy), Bethsaida (Place of Fishing), Gethsemane (oil-press), Jerusalem (Dwelling of Peace), Siloam (ridui, translated ἀπεσταλμένος, John ix. 7, by Robinson, an aqueduct ; by Grimm, effusio, Wasserguss), etc.

II. Hebraizing phrases and modes of construction:

ἀπὸ προσώπου, "2872 or "IBD, from the face or presence of any one, Srom before, from, Acts iii. 19; v. 41; vii. 45; 2 Thess. i. 9; Rev. vi. 16; xii. 14; xx, 11,

32 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

βασιλεύειν ἐπί (instead of gen. or dat.), by 2% to reign over, Luke i. 33; xix. 14,17; Matt. ii. 22, ete.

γεύεσϑαι Savarov (Aram.), to taste of death, to die, Matt. xvi. 28; Mark ix. 1; John viii. 52, etc.

δύο δύο (bini, for ἀνὰ δύο or εἰς δύο), pair-wise, by two and two, Mark νἱ. 7.

ei (for οὐ), ON, in forms of oath, as Mark viii. 12, εἰ δοϑήσεται σημεῖον, no sign shall be given; Heb. iv. 5, εἰ εἰσελεύσονται, if they shall enter into my rest (supply the apodosis, then will I not live, or be Jehovah), i. e. they shall not enter. Comp. Gen. xiv. 23; Deut. i. 35; and Thayer’s Winer, p. 500 (Moulton’s Winer, p. 627).

εἰς ἀπάντησιν, mip), for meeting (instead of inf. ἀπαντᾶν, to meet), Matt. xxv. 1,6; Acts xxviii. 15.

εὐδοκεῖν ἔν τινι, 3 YDN, to be well pleased with, to take pleasure in some one, Matt. iii. 17; xvii. 5; Mark i. 11; Luke iii. 22, ete.

AoyiZe εἰς (δικαιοσύνην), 5 awh, to reckon unto, to impute, Rom. iv. 3, 22: Gal. iii.6; James ii. 23. Comp. Gen. xv. 6 (Sept.).

ὁμολογεῖν Ev τινι (comp. by man, Ps. xxxii. 5, slightly differing), to make a confession on or respecting some one (in alicuius causa), Matt. x. 32; Luke xii. 8.

οὐ... πᾶς, DD ND, for οὐδείς, not one, none, Matt. xxiv. 22; Mark xiii, 20; Rom. 111. 20; Gal. ii. 16; Eph. v. 5, ete.

πρόσωπον πρὸς πρόσωπον, DID DN DIB, face to face (nothing intervening), 1 Cor. xiii.12. See Sept. Gen. xxxii. 31.

πρόσωπον λαμβάνειν, 22D NW, to accept the person of any one, to Savor, to be partial. In the New Test. only in a bad sense, Luke xx. 21; Gal. ii. 6 (πρόσωπον ϑεὸς ἀνϑρώπου ob λαμβάνει).

πρασιαὶ πρασιαΐ (adverbially and distributively, areolatim, for ava πρασιάς), in ranks, plat-wise, by plats (like beds in a garden), Mark vi. 40, So also συμπόσια συμπόσια, by table parties, by companies, in ver. 39.

Also ἀκολουϑεῖν ὀπίσω τινος, εἶναι εἴς τι, ὀμνύειν ἔν τινι, προσκυνεῖν ἐνώπιόν τινος, the frequent καὶ ἐγένετο (747), ete.

υἱός, with the genitive in the sense of belonging to, or exposed to, deserving of, as υἱὸς Savarov (M72 2), son of death ; υἱοὶ τοῦ νυμφῶ- voc, sons of the bridal chamber, bridemen ; υἱοὶ τῆς βασιλείας, sons of the kingdom ; υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ, subjects and followers of Satan; vide τῆς ἀπολείας, son of perdition, 2. 6. doomed to perdition (John xvii. 12); υἱοὶ τῆς ἀναστάσεως, partakers of the resurrection (Luke xx. 36), etc.

Foreign derivatives in imitation of the vernacular, as ἀναϑεματίζω (from ἀνάϑεμα, Heb. DAM, devoted to God, Lev. xxvii. 28, 29; but also devoted to death, a thing accursed, Josh, vi. 17; vii. 1, etc.), to anathe-

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 32

matize, to lay under a curse (Mark xiv. 71; Acts xxiii. 12, 14, 21); ἐγκαινίζειν (from ἐγκαίνια), to initiate, to dedicate (Heb. ix. 18; x. 20; in the Sept. for 724, Deut. xx. 5); σκανδαλίζειν ὦ DD, 9032, 27257), to make stumble, to lead to sin, and the passive σκανδαλίζεσϑαι, to stumble, to be led astray (Matt. v. 29; xiii. 21, etc., from σκάνδαλον, a trap-stick, a snare, a stumbling-block, in the Sept. for win); σπλαγχνίζεσϑαι (from σπλάγχνα, DT, bowels), to have compassion (Matt. xx. 34, etc.).

The intensive adverbial use of the noun in the dative with the corre- sponding verb is counted among the Hebraisms (although it occurs occa- sionally among classical writers, even in Plato; see Thayer’s Winer, Ρ. 466), as χαρᾷ χαίρει, he reoiceth greatly (John iii. 29), ἐπιϑυμίᾳ ἐπεϑύμησα, I have earnestly desired (Luke xxii. 15).

The particles ἵνα and ὅταν are constructed with the present and future indicative, Luke xi. 2; Gal. vi. 12 (?); Mark iii. 2. ‘va in classical writers denotes the purpose or intention (ἵνα τελικόν, in order that); but in later Greek and in the New Test. sometimes simply the consequence or result (iva ἐκβατικόν, so that). The ecbatic use has often been needlessly pressed, but as needlessly denied by Fritzsche and Meyer. See Moulton’s Winer, p. 573 sqq., Thayer, 457 sqq., and Robinson and Grimm sub ἵνα.

III. Greek words with Hebrew meanings:

ἄγγελος (a messenger), in the sense of angel.

(τὰ) ἅγια ἁγίων (for the superlative, Ὁ wp), the holy of holies, or the inner sanctuary of the temple, Heb. ix. 3.

αἰὼν οὗτος and αἰὼν μέλλων, TID pis and N23 p>iy, for the two ages or eras (dispensations) befure and after the Messiah's advent, modified in the New Test. the present and the future world. So also the expressions ἔσχαται ἡμέραι, ἐσχάτη ὥρα, τὰ τέλη τῶν αἰώνων, συντέλεια τοῦ αἰῶνος, refer to the last times of the αἰὼν οὗτος, ἴῃ the New Test. to the interval between the first and second advent of Christ, more particularly the apostolic period, Matt. xiii. 39; xxviii. 20; Acts ii. 17; Heb. i. 1; James v. 3; 1 Cor. x. 11, ete.

αἷμα ἐκχέειν or ἐκχύνειν (03 DV), to kill, Luke xi. 50; Rom. iii. 15,

ἄρτον φαγεῖν, to take food, to eat Cond DDR ), Mark iii, 20; Luke xiv.1. Also ἐσϑίειν ἄρτον, Matt, xv.2.

ἀφιέναι ἁμαρτίας (or ὀφειλήματα, παραπτώματα, etc.), to forgive sins, etc., to pardon, Matt. vi. 12; ix. 6; Luke xi. 4, etc. Comp. the Heb. “IBD, Sept. Isa. xxii. 14; NW, Gen. 1. 17.

βαπτίζειν, βαπτισμός, βάπτισμα, in the wider sense of ceremonial washings, whether by pouring, or dipping, or immersion, Mark vii. 4; Heb. vi. 2; ix.10. Comp. Sept. 2 Kings v. 14.

\ 6 RAR y

\ ‘or THE

UNIVERSIT ¥

34 ‘THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

γλῶσσα, in the sense of nation (jr), Rev. v. 9; vii. 9, ete.

δαιμονιζόμενος, possessed by a demon or evil spirit. Often in the Gospels.

δέειν and λύειν, to bind and to Mioee in the rabbinical sense to forbid and to permit, Matt. xvi. 19; xviii. 18. Comp. John xx. 23, where the same idea is expressed literally by κρατεῖν and ἀφιέναι.

διάβολος (accuser, slanderer), for Satan, Matt. iv. 1; ix. 34, etc. Comp. Job i. 7, 12; Rev. xii. 9, 10.

δύναμις Ae δυνάμεις, i in the sense of miraculous powers (mindEa, Sept. Job xxxvii. 14), Matt. vii. 22, and very often. See Dictionaries.

ἔϑνη, in the sense of Gentiles, heathen (855), as distinct from the Jew- ish nation (λαός, DY), Luke ii. 32, ete.

εὐλογέω, to bless (533), Luke i. 64; Matt. v. 44, etc.

ἐκ κοιλίας μητρός, from birth, from infancy (AN 1232), Gal. i. 15.

ζητεῖν τὸν ϑεόν, to seek God, i.e, to turn to him as a sincere worshipper, Acts xvii. 27; Rom. x. 20. Quoted from Isa. Ιχν. 1 (Sept.).

ζητεῖν ἡ νὰν to seek one’s life, i.e. to seek to kill him (WE? wR), Matt. ii. 10; Rom. xi. 3.

ἰδεῖν, to see, in the sense to experience (to suffer, or to enjoy, like TX"), Luke ii. 26; Heb. xi. 5.

ὁδός, manner of life (73), Matt. xxi. 32; Rom. iii. 17; Acts xviii, 25; James v. 20,

ῥῆμα, in the sense of thing (as “3), Luke ii. 15; Acts v. 32.

σάρξ ("W3), in the sense of man (mortal), or human nature, or natural descent (κατὰ σάρκα), or frailty, or the corrupt, carnal nature, in opposition to πνεῦμα. Very often, especially in Paul’s Epistles. See Dictionaries.

σὰρξ καὶ αἷμα, for men, with the accessory idea of weakness and frailty, Matt. xvi. 17; Eph. vi. 12; Gal. i. 16.

σπέρμα, seed, in the sense of offspring, posterity (21), Matt. xxii. 24, 25; Mark xii. 19-21; Luke i. 55; xx. 28; Rom. iv. 18, 18, ete.

cuvvaywyn, a Jewish synagogue (assembly), Luke viii. 41, ete.; a Christian congregation, James ii. 2; synagogue of Satan, Rev. ii. 9; iii. 9,

χριστός, anointed, in the sense of the Messiah.

IV. The Hebraizing style and construction shows itself in the simplicity of the syntax, the absence of long and artificial periods, the rarity of oblique and participial constructions, the monotony of form, emphatic repetition, and the succession of sentences

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ᾿ 35

by way of a constructive parallelism rather than by logical sequence. The Sermon on the Mount (es- pecially the Beatitudes), the parables, and even Paul’s Epistles have that correspondence of words and thoughts which is the characteristic feature and charm of Hebrew poetry.

We may add (with Westcott), that “calm empha- sis, solemn repetition, grave simplicity, the gradual accumulation of truths, give to the language of the Holy Scripture a depth and permanence of effect found nowhere else. . . . The character of the style lies in its total effect, and not in separate elements ; it is seen in the spirit which informs the entire text far more vividly than in the separate members.” '

LATINISMS.

The Greek of the apostolic writings is Hebraizing, but not Romanizing. The Romans imposed their military rule, their polity, and their laws, but not their speech, upon the conquered ‘nations. The greatest Roman orator admitted that the Latin was provincial, while the Greek was universal in. the empire.” Yet a number of Latin terms — mostly military, political, and monetary, and for some arti- cles of dress—have found their way into the com- mon speech with the Roman conquest. They are most frequent in Mark’s Gospel, which was written in Rome and for Romans.

*In Smith’s Bible Dict. iii. 2141 (Hackett and Abbot’s ed.) Comp. Westcott’s Introd. to the Gospels, pp. 241-252.

5 Cicero (Pro Arch. 10): “Greca leguntur in omnibus fere gentibus ; Latina suis finibus, exiguis sane, continentur.”

36 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

ἀσσάριον, as, a Roman copper coin, worth three English farthings, or 1} cent (one tenth of a denarius), Matt. x. 29; Luke xii.6. Probably the neuter form of the old Latin assarius, as δηνάριον is of denarius,

δηνάριον, denarius, a Roman silver coin of the value of ten asses (as the name indicates), and afterwards of sixteen asses (the as being re- duced), equivalent to the Attic drachma, or about sixteen cents, In the New Test. it stands for a large sum, a day’s wages; hence the transla- tion penny, which creates the opposite impression, should have been changed by the Revisers into denarius, or dendry, or shilling, Matt. Xviil. 28; xx. 2,9, 10,13; xxii. 19; Mark vi.37; John vi.7; xii. 5; Rev. vi. 6, ete.

kevTupiwy, centurio (originally a commander of a hundred foot-soldiers, ἑκατόνταρχος), Mark xv. 39, 44, 45.

κῆνσος, census (Greek, ἀπογραφή) ; in the New Test. tribute, poll-tax, Matt. xvii. 25; xxii. 17; Mark xii. 14 (δοῦναι κῆνσον Kaicapi).

κοδράντης, guadrans (from guatuor), a small copper coin, the fourth part of an as, a farthing (ὦ, e. fourthing), two fifths of one cent, Matt. v. 26; Mark xii. 42.

κολωνία, colonia, a Roman colony, Acts xvi. 22.

KovoTwoia, custodia, custody, guard (of Roman soldiers), Matt. xxvii. 65, 66; xxviii. 11. Corresponds to the Greek φυλακή.

κράββατος, or κράβαττος (Lachmann, Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort), grabatus, a small couch or mattress, Mark ii. 4, ete.

Aeyewr (Westcott and Hort, λεγιών), legio, legion, Mark v. 9, 15; Matt. xxvi. 53; Luke viii.30. Also in rabbinical Hebrew (7732). See Buxtorf.

λέντιον, linteum, a linen cloth, a towel or apron, worn by servants, John xiii. 4,5. From the Greek λίνον, a flaxen cord.

λιβερτῖνος, libertinus, a freedman, Acts vi. 9.

Xirpa, from libra, the Roman pound of twelve ounces, John xii. 3; xix, 39.

μάκελλον, macellum, meat-market, shambles, 1 Cor. x. 25.

μεμβράνα, membrana (from membrum), skin, parchment, 2 Tim. iv. 13.

μίλιον, milliarium (for mille passuum), a thousand paces, a mile, Matt. v. 41.

μύόδιος, modius, a measure, the chief Roman measure for things dry, and equal to one third of the Roman amphora (nearly one peck), Matt. v. 15; Mark iy. 21; Luke xi. 33.

ξέστης, sextarius, in the New Test. a small measure, or vessel, pot, Mark vii. 4, 8.

πραιτώριον, pretorium, the general’s tent in a camp; and also the resi-

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 37

dence or palace of a provincial governor, Matt. xxvii. 27; Mark xv. 16; John xviii. 28; xix. 9; Acts xxiii. 35; Phil. i. 13.

ῥέδη, rheda, or raeda, reda (of Celtic origin), a travelling carriage with four wheels, a chariot, Rev. xviii. 13.

σικάριος, sicarius (from sica, dagger), assassin, robber, Acts xxi. 38,

σιμικίνϑιον, semicinctium (from semi, half, and cingere, to gird), an apron, Acts xix.12. For ἡμιζώνιον. .

σουδάριον, sudarium (from sudor, sweat), sweat-cloth, handkerchief, Luke xix. 20; John xi. 44; xx. 7; Acts xix. 12,

σπεκουλάτωρ, speculator, a pikeman, a soldier of the body-guard em- ployed as watch and in messages, Mark vi, 27; also in later Hebrew. For σωματοφύλαξ.

ταβέρνη, taberna, tavern, Acts xxviii. 15.

τίτλος, titulus, inscription, superscription, John xix. 19, 20. For ém- γραφή.

φαιλόνης (φαινόλης), penula, a woollen cloak, or mantle for travelling (and also in rainy weather), 2 Tim. iv. 13.

φόρον, forum, market; part of the name of the village Appit forum, Acts xxviii. 15. -

φραγέλλιον, flagellum, a scourge, John ii. 15,

φραγελλόω, flagello, to flagellate, to scourge, Matt. xxvii. 26; Mark χν. 18,

(χάρτης), charta, paper, 2 John 12,

χῶρος, corus, or caurus, the northwest wind, Acts xxvii. 12.

Total, 31 Latinisms. Potwin gives 24, Thayer 30 (omitting xdprns).

Latin proper names of persons:

Agrippa, Amplias, Aquila, Caius, Cornelius, Claudia, Clemens, Crescens, Crispus, Drusilla, Felix, Festus, Fortunatus, Gallio, Julius, Julia, Junia, Justus, Linus, Lucius, Luke (abridged from Lucanus), Marcus or Mark, Niger, Paulus, Pilate, Priscilla or Prisca, Publius, Pudens, Quartus, Rufus, Sergius, Silvanus (abridged Silas), Tertius, Tertullus, Titus, Urban. Three names of Roman emperors: Augustus ( Σεβαστός ), Tiberius, Claudius. The generic name Cesar ( Καῖσαρ) is applied to Augustus (Luke ii. 1), to Tiberius (Luke iii. 1), to Claudius (Acts xi. 28), and to Nero (Acts xxv. 8; Phil. iv. 22).

Names of places:

Appii Forum, Cesarea, Italy, Rome, Spain, Tiberias, Tres Tabernax, Latin phrases :

ἐργασίαν δοῦναι, operam dare (Luke xii. 58); συμβούλιον λαμβάνειν,

consilium capere (Matt. xii. 14, etc.); τὸ ἱκανὸν ποιεῖν τινι, satisfacere alicus (Mark xv, 15).

38 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

NUMBER AND VALUE OF FOREIGN WORDS.

Professor Lemuel 8. Potwin (of Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio) has made a list of native words of the New Testament not found in classical authors before Aristotle (who is included among the classics, though his diction is on the boundary be- tween the Attic and the Common dialects), with the following results: ’

(1.) The total number of words in the Greek Testament (according to Tischendorf’s text) not found in the classics is no less than 882 (nouns 392, adjectives and adverbs 171, verbs 319); that is, nearly one sixth of the entire vocabulary. But a consid- erable number of these words are found in the Sept- uagint, Josephus, Polybius, and Plutarch. In the Septuagint 363 occur.

(2.) The new words are, with few exceptions, derivatives or compounds from Greek roots. The verbs are largely denominatives, but more largely multiplied by composition with prepositions. The adjectives arise mostly from composition, the alpha prwatiwum being very frequent, as the English compounds with wn are constantly increasing.

(3.) The rhetorical value varies. Many of these words are clear and full of meaning, as δίψυχος,

1 See Bibliotheca Sacra, Andover, July, 1880, pp. 503-527; and Oct. 1880, pp. 640-660. The results are stated on p. 652 sqq. Prof. Potwin has published lists of Latinisms in Bibl. Sacra for Oct. 1875, p. 703 sqq., and of Hebraisms, zbid. Jan. 1876, p. 52 sqq. I made my lists indepen- dently, from Bruder, Hudson, etc. Comp. also Thayer’s Append. to his ed. of Grimm (1886) See p. 80.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 39

double- minded, wavering, Jas. i. 8; iv. 8; also in Clemens Rom. Ad Cor. ¢. 23; σύμψυχος, or σύνψυ- . xoc, concors, like-minded, congenial, Phil. ii. 2; Aoyouaxia, word-strife, 1 Tim. vi. 4; ᾿μακροϑυμία, longanimity, forbearance, Rom. ii. 4, etc.; Seodida- κτος, taught of God, 1 Thess. iv. 9; and the com- pounds with ayaSo-, avti-, érepo-, and ψευδο-.

(4.) The doctrinal and practical value is great in proportion to the idea expressed. Such words as ἀγάπη (caritas, as distinct from ἔρως, amor), ἀποκά- λυψις, ἀπολύτρωσις, ἁμαρτωλός, βάπτισμα, βαπτισμύς, βαπτιστής, ἱλασμός, παλιγγενεσία, συνείδησις, have a definite theological significance, and cannot be re- placed by classical words.

-

THE CHRISTIAN ELEMENT.’

The language of the apostles and evangelists is baptized with the spirit and fire of Christianity, and thus received a character altogether peculiar and distinct from the secular Greek. The genius of a new religion must either create a new speech, or inspire an old speech with a new meaning. The former would have concealed the religion from the people, like the glossolalia in the Corinthian Church, which required an interpreter. The Greek was flex- ible and elastic enough to admit of a transformation under the inspiring influence of revealed truth. It furnished the flesh and blood for the incarnation of divine ideas. Words in common use among the

~ Comp. Schleiermacher, Hermen. 66, 138; Immer, Hermen. 129; Cremer, Biblico-Theol, Lexicon; Trench, Synonyms of the N. Test,

40 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

classics, or in popular intercourse, were clothed with a deeper spiritual significance; they were trans- planted from a lower to a higher sphere, from mythology to revelation, from the order of nature to the order of grace, from the realm of sense to the realm of faith.

This applies to those characteristic terms which express the fundamental ideas of. Christianity—as gospel, faith, love, hope, mercy, peace, light, life, repentance or conversion, regeneration, redemption, justification, sanctification, grace, humility, apostle, evangelist, baptism, kingdom of heaven.

Gospel (εὐαγγέλιον) to a Greek Gentile was either reward for good news (as in Homer), or good news of any kind; but to a Greek Christian it meant the best of all news ever heard on earth, proclaimed by angels from heaven to all the people, that a Saviour was born and lived, and died and rose again for a sinful world. The word church (ἐκκλησία, συναγωγή) has passed through a heathen, Jewish, and Christian stage; it denotes first a lawful assembly of free Creek citizens, then a religious congregation of Jews, and at last that grand commonwealth of God which Christ founded on a rock, and which is to embrace the whole human family. Fazth (πίστις, from πείϑω, to persuade, meiSopat τινι, to trust in) conveys the general idea of confidence in a person, or belief in the truth of a report; but in the New Testament it is that gift of grace whereby we accept Christ in unbounded trust as our Lord and Saviour, and are urged to follow him in a life of holy obe- dience. Love (ἀγάπη is not found in elassical writ-

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 41

ers, but in its place φιλία. πὰ φιλανϑρωπία, and the verb ἀγαπάω, which expresses regard and affection) is much more than natural affection and philan- thropy; it is a heavenly flame, kindled by God’s redeeming love, the crowning gift of the Spirit, the surest test of Christian character, the fulfilling of the law, the bond of perfectness, and the fountain of bliss—a worthy theme for the seraphic descrip- tion of the inspired Paul. Hope (ἐλπίς) rises from the sphere of uncertain expectation and desire for future prosperity to the certain assurance of the final consummation of salvation and never-ending happiness in heaven. The Greek terms for humility (ταπεινός, ταπεινόφρων, ταπεινοφροσύνη, ταπεινότης, ταπείνωσις) designate to the proud heathen meanness and baseness of mind, but in the New Testament a fundamental Christian virtue. Repentance (μετάνοια) signifies not simply a change of opinion, or even a moral reformation, but a radical transformation of the heart, whereby the sinner breaks away from his former life and surrenders himself to the service of God. The words holy and holiness (ἅγιος, ἁγιάζω. ἁγιασμός, ἁγιωσύνη), Whether applied to God or man, rise as far above the cognate terms of secular Greek (ἁγνός, σεμνός, ὅσιος, ἱερός) as the God of the Bible rises above the gods of Homer, and a Christian saint above a Greek sage.

The purifying, spiritualizing, and elevating influ- ence of the genius of Christianity was exerted through the Greek and Latin upon all other lan- guages into which the gospel is translated.’ It per-

1 For the influence of Christianity on the Teutonic language, see

5

492 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

vades the whole moral and religious vocabulary. It meets us in every inscription and salutation of the apostolic letters. The formula of greeting, “ Mercy and peace be unto you,” transforms the idea of physical health and temporal happiness, as conveyed in the Greek χαίρειν and the Hebrew shalom lecha, into the idea of spiritual and eternal welfare, so that χάρις and εἰρήνη comprehend the blessings, objec- tive and subjective, of the Christian salvation. Yet Aristotle’s definition of χάρις (which usually means gracefulness in form or manner, also favor, good- will) is not far from the Christian conception when he lays the whole emphasis on the disinterested motive of the giver without expectation or hope of return.’ Language is in some measure prophetic, and the first and lower meaning of words often points to a higher spiritual meaning; as the whole realm of nature points to the truths of the kingdom of heaven. The parables of our Lord are based upon this typical correspondence.

For the proper understanding of the New Testa- ment, in the fulness of its religions meaning, much

Rudolph von Raumer, Die Einwirkung des Christenthums auf die althoch- deutsche Sprache (Stuttgart, 1845). German and English words which refer to the external aspect of the church are borrowed from the Greek or Latin, as Kirche, church (κυριακόν), Bischof, bishop (ἐπίσκοπος); Priester, priest (πρεσβύτερος), Almosen, alms (ἐλεημοσύνη), Predigt, preaching (predicatio); but terms which express the inner life of religion are originally German or Saxon, and impregnated with a far deeper meaning; as Heiland (Heliand), Heil, Erlésung, Bekehrung, Wiedergeburt, Glaube, Liebe, Hoffnung, Himmel: atonement, new birth, love, hope, heaven.

1 Rhet. ii. 7, quoted by Trench (p. 252), who says, “the freeness of the outcomings of God’s love is the central point of χάρις," comp. Rom, iii. 24 (δωρεὰν τῇ αὐτοῦ χάριτι) and other passages,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 48

more is required than mere knowledge of the lan- guage. ‘The most extensive and thorough familiar- ity with Greek, Hebrew, and Roman literature is unable to penetrate from the surface of the letter to the depth of the spirit without sympathy with the lofty and heavenly ideas of that book. Philo- logical exegesis is the necessary basis, but only the basis, of theological and religious exposition which requires faith and spiritual insight. The gram- matical sense is but one— definite, specific; the spiritual sense is as high and deep and infinite as the truth which the word feebly indicates, and the application of the truth is universal for all time. It is as true to-day as it was in the days of Paul that “the natural man” (ψυχικὸς ἄνθρωπος), who is guid- ed only by the light of reason (though he may not be σαρκικός), “ receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness unto him; and he cannot know them, because they are spiritually judged.” ’ PECULIARITIES OF STYLE.”

The general unity of language admits of great

variety of style. Every man has his style, and “the

? Or, examined, πνευματικῶς ἀνακρίνεται, 1 Cor. 11. 14,

? On this subject the following works may be consulted: Christoph Gotthelf Gersdorf, Beitrdge zur Sprach-Charakteristik der Schriftsteller des N. Test. (Leipz. 1816 ; only the first part published), This work was suggested by Griesbach, and opened the way for this kind of investigation. T. α. Seyffarth, Beitrag zur Special-Characteristik der Johann. Schrifien (Leipz. 1823), Credner, Kinleit, im dus N. T. vol. i. (Halle, 1836), Wilke, Der Urevangelist (Dresden and Leipzig, 1838), Neutestamentl. Rhetorik (1843), and Hermeneutik des N. T. (Leipzig, 1843-44, 2 Parts). Zeller, _ ip the “Theol. Jahirhiicher,* Tubingen, 1843 (pp. 449-025). Luthardt,

44 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

style is the man.” The apostolic writers were guided by the same Spirit, but in accordance with their pe- culiarities of temper, mode of thought, and speech. Divine grace purifies, elevates, and sanctifies nature, and is destructive only to sin and error. A gentle- man is the perfection of a man; a Christian is the perfection of a gentleman. No two human beings are precisely alike; every one is a microcosmos, has his individuality more or less marked, and, his special work more or less important, though many, alas, fail to perceive and to perform it. There are different types of apostolic teaching, and different styles of apostolic writing to suit different tastes, objects, and classes of readers.

The idiosyncrasies of the sacred writers have been more or less felt from the beginning, and incidentally pointed out by Irenzeus, Jerome, Augustin, Chrys- ostom, Luther, Calvin, and other great biblical schol-

Das Johann, Evang. (revised ed. 1875; Engl. translation by Gregory, Edinb. 1876, vol. i. pp. 20-63). Westcott, Introd. to the Study of the Gospels (Lond. and Cambr. 1860; 6th ed. 1881; Amer. ed. by Hackett, Boston, 1862, pp. 264 sqq.). Holtzmann, Die Synopt. Evangelien (Leipz. 1863, pp. 271-358). Holtzmann, on the Yphesians and Colossians (Leipz. 1872), and on the Pastoral Epistles (ibid. 1880, pp. 84-117), where the linguistic — peculiarities and hapax legomena of Ephesians and Pastoral Epistles are investigated for the purpose of proving their un-Pauline character. The two critical works of Weiss on Mark and Matthew (1872 and 1876). Im- mer, Hermeneutics of the N. Test., translated by A. H. Newman (Andover, 1877, pp. 132-144). Scholten, Das Paulinische Evangelium, translated from the Dutch by Redepenning (Elberf. 1881, pp. 18, 31, 87, 188 sqq.). Scholten is all wrong in ascribing Luke’s Gospel and the Acts to two dif- ferent authors—the first to a polemical, the second to an irenical Paulinist —and in assuming a proto-Luke which preceded the canonical Luke. I have found Holtzmann on the Synoptists, and Luthardt on John very helpful. Comp, the lists of Thayer-Grimm, Append., made since,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 45

ars; but a mechanical theory of inspiration pre- vented an unbiased examination of the subject till the nineteenth century. Our English version here errs in two opposite directions: by its vicious prin- ciple of variation it unnecessarily increases the verbal differences of the writers; while, on the other hand, it obscures and obliterates characteristic pecu- liarities by using the same English term for differ- ent Greek words. It is one of the chief merits of the revision of 1881, that it introduces consistency of rendering.

It is the strength and merit of rationalism (whether German, Dutch, French, or English) to investigate the Auman character and history of the Bible; it is its weakness and error to ignore or undervalue its divine character and history. It takes its stand outside of the Bible, and treats it like any other book of antiquity from a purely critical standpoint. It denies its sanctity in order to subject it to a heart- less process of anatomical dissection. It handles the disjointed members, but the life and spirit has escaped ; as Goethe says of the logician:

“ Er hat die Theile in seiner Hand, Fehit leider nur das geistige Band.”

Rationalism has a keen eye for all the diversities of thought and style of the apostles and evangelists, but is blind to the underlying unity and harmony. It stretches the differences between the Synoptists and John, Matthew and Luke, the fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse, Galatians and Acts, between James and Paul, Peter and Paul, Paul and John, into irreconcilable contradictions, and thus tends to

46 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

destroy all confidence in the divine origin and au- thority of the New Testament.

But, fortunately, this is only the negative part of the process. Whether willing or unwilling, ration- alism contributes to a better understanding and deeper appreciation of that old and ever new Book of books, in which, as Heinrich Ewald once said, “is contained the wisdom of the whole world.” Ex- treme theories and errors are refuted one after another by the different schools of rationalism, and the sacred writers come out of the fire of critical _purgatory unsinged, and with a stronger claim than ‘ever upon the intelligent reverence and faith of the Christian world. A profounder search from the surface to the deep discovers unity in diversity, concord in discord, a divine spirit animating the human body, and sees in the very ‘variety of the sacred writers only the manifold wisdom and grace of God.’

The sinless perfection of Christ’s humanity is the best proof of his divinity, and brings his divinity nearer and makes it dearer to the heart of the be- liever. What is true of the personal Word may be applied to the written word,

“ Jesus, divinest when Thou most art man.”

MATTHEW.

Matthew wrote a Gospel first in Hebrew for Hebrews. But the Greek Gospel under his name is a free reproduction and substitution rather than

* Eph. iii. 10, πολυποίκιλος σοφία τοῦ Seov, 1 Ῥεῖ, iv, 10, ποικίλη χάρις Seov, Comp. Rom, xii.; 1 Cor, xii,-xiv,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 47

a translation.’ No independent author would liter- ally translate himself. The originality of the canon- ical Matthew is evident from the discrimination in Old Testament quotations which are freely taken from the Septuagint in the course of the narrative, but adapted to the Hebrew when they contain im- portant Messianic prophecies.’ It appears also from his use of words and phrases which have no equiva- lent in Hebrew, as the paronomasia of purest Demos- thenian Greek: κακοὺς κακῶς (pessemos pessime ) ἀπολέσει αὐτοὺς, “ Those wretches he will wretchedly destroy ” (xxi. 41).° :

Matthew’s style is simple, calm, dignified, even majestic. He Hebraizes, but less than Mark and the first two chapters of Luke. He is less vivid and picturesque than Mark, more even and uniform than Luke, who varies in expression with his sources.

? The ancient witnesses, from Papias to Eusebius and Jerome, agree both in ascribing to Matthew a Hebrew Gospel, and in accepting the Greek Matthew of our canon whenever they mention it as the work of an apostle without any doubt of its genuineness.

* This distinction has been first observed by Credner and Bleek, and further examined and accepted by Holtzmann (Die Synopt. Evang. Ρ. 259), Ritschl, and Westcott. From this fact we must infer that the author was a Jew well acquainted both with the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint.

* Or, as the Rev. V. renders the Greek, “He will miserably destroy those miserable men.” The A. V. obliterates the paronomasia which brings out the agreement of the punishment with the deed. Other ren- derings: “The naughty men he will bring to naught” (Rheims V.); malos male perdet (Vulgate) ; iibel wird er die Ueblen vernichten (Ewald) ; schlimm wird er die Schlimmen umbringen (Lange). Other paronomasias: vi. 16, agpavicovory τὰ πρόσωπα αὐτῶν ὕπως φανῶσιν τοῖς ἀνϑρώ- ποις νηστεύοντες, “they disfigure their faces that they may figure as men fasting ;” vi, 7, βαττολογεῖν and πυλυλογία,

48 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

He has a preference for rubrical arrangement, prob- ably in accordance with his previous habits of book- keeping at the custom-house. He gives headings to some of his sections, as Βίβλος γενέσεως ᾿Ιησοῦ Xpr- στοῦ (i. 1-18, corresponding to the Hebrew Sepher tholedoth ; comp. Gen. v.13 ii. 4), Τῶν δώδεκα ἀπο-

στύλων τὰ ὀνύματά ἐστιν ταῦτα (xX. 2). He pays most attention to the discourses of our Lord, and strings them together like so many precious jewels; one weighty sentence follows another till the effect is overwhelming.’ His Gospel is eminently didactic, and in this respect quite different from that of Mark, which deals more with facts and incidents. He alone uses the term “the kingdom of heaven” (ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν, thirty-two times); while the other evangelists and Paul speak of “the king- dom of God” (ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ Seov). With this cor- responds his designation of God as “the heavenly Father” (6 πατὴρ 6 οὐράνιος, or 6 ἐν τοῖς ovpavoic).” He has a peculiar formula of citing Messianic pas- sages, ἵνα (or ὅπως) πληρωϑδῇῃ τὸ ῥηδέν, OF τότε ἐπληρώϑη τὸ ῥηϑέν, which occurs twelve times in his. Gospel,* but only once in Mark,’ seven times in John,’

1 Chs. v.-vii.; x.3 Xlii.; Xxiii.; xxiv.; and xxv.

2 v, 16,45, 48; vi. 1, 9. 14, 26, 32; vii. 11, 21; x. 82, 88; xv. 13; xvi. 17; xviii. 14, 19, 35. ‘

3 i, 22; ii. 15, 17, 23; iv. 14; viii. 17; xii. 17; xiii. 35; xxi. 4; xxvi. 56 (in the plural, ἵνα πληρωθῶσιν ai γραφαί) ; xxvii. 9.

4 Mark xiv. 49, iva πληρωϑῶσιν ai γραφαί. The passage xv. 28, ἐπληρώϑη ἡ γραφὴ ἡ λέγουσα, is omitted by critical editors on the author- ity of NBC*, etc., as a probable insertion from Luke xxii, 37.

§ xii. 38; xiii, 18; xv. 25; xvii, 12; xviii. 9; xix. 24, 26; besides a “passage without ἵνα, xviii, 32.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 49

and nowhere in Luke.’ He uses τότε ninety-one times (Mark only six times, Luke fourteen times). Matthew alone calls Jerusalem “the holy city,” and a “city of the Great King.”* This is one of the indications that his Gospel was written before the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70), which is fore- told in the eschatological discourses of our Lord (ch. xxiv.) as a future, though fast-approaching judg- ment, without the least hint of the evangelist at the striking fulfilment; while yet he is very particular in marking the fulfilment of the Old Testament prophecies.

Worps PECULIAR To Marruew, and not found elsewhere in the New Testament. They number about 130. I give the most important, as collected from the concordances of Bruder and Hudson:

ἀγγεῖον, vessel, xxv. 4. Barrodoyéw, to use vain repetitions, ἄγγος (plur. dyyn), vessel, xiii. 48} νἱ. 7.

(Tisch., Treg., W. and H.). βιαστής, violent, xi. 12. ἄγκιστρον, hook, xvii. 27. δεῖνα, such a man, xxvi. 18, aS@oc, innocent of, xxviii. 24, διακωλύω, to hinder, iii. 14. aiperiZw, to choose, xii. 18, διαλλάττομαι, to be reconciled, v. 24, ἀκμήν, yet, xv. 16. διασαφέω, to explain, to tell, xiii, ἀναβιβάζω, to draw, xiii. 48. 36; xviii. 31. ἀναίτιος, guiltless, xii. 5, 7. διέξόδος, with τῶν ὁδῶν, highway, ἀπάγχομαι, to hang one’s self,| xxii. 9.

xxvii. 5, διετής, two years old, ii. 16. ἀπονίπτομαι, to wash, xxvii. 24, διστάζω, to doubt, xiv. 31; xxviii. βαρύτιμος, very precious, xxvi. 7, 17. βασανιστής, tormentor, xviii. 34. | διυλίζω, to strain out, xxiii. 24. (To

Except the somewhat similar phrase, τὸ γεγραμμένον δεῖ τελεσϑῆναι ἐν ἐμοί, xxii, 37,

* ἡ ayia πόλις, iv. 5; xxvii. 53; πόλις τοῦ μεγάλου βασιλέως, ν. 35. The temple or the hill of Moriah is called τόπος ἅγιος, xxiv. 15.

00

strain αὐ in the E. V. is ἃ typo- graphical error perpetuated).

διχάζω, to set at variance, x. 35.

ἑβδομηκοντάκις, seventy times, XViii. 22.

ἔγερσις, resurrection, xxvii. 53.

ἐϑνικός, heathen, v. 47 (correct read- ing for τελώνης); vi. 7; Xvill. 17 (the plural occurs once in 3 John, ver. 7, and the adverb ἐϑνικῶς in Gal. ii. 14).

εἰρηνοποιός, peacemaker, v. 9.

ἐκλάμπω, to shine forth, xiii. 48,

ἐξορκιζω, to adjure, xxvi. 63.

ἐπιγαμβρεύω, to intermarry, to mar- ry a brother’s widow (with refer- ence to levirate marriage, accord- ing to Jewish law), xxii. 24.

ἐπιορκέω, to forswear one’s self, v. 33.

ἐπισπείρω, to Sow among, Xilii. 25.

εὐνοέω, to agree, v. 25.

εὐνουχίζω, to make a eunuch, xix. 12; εὐνουχίζειν ἑαυτόν, to make one’s self a eunuch, ¢. 6. to live in voluntary celibacy and abstinence, xix, 12,

εὐρύχωρος, broad, vii. 13,

Savpaouoc, wonderful, xxi. 15,

ϑυμόω, to be wroth, ii. 16,

ἰῶτα, jot, v. 18.

καταϑεματίζω, to curse, XXVi. 74,

καταμανϑάνω, to consider, vi. 28.

καταποντίζω, Mid. or Pass., to bay xiv. 30; to be drowned, xviii. 6.

κῆτος, whale, sea-monster, xii. 40.

KovoTwoia, watch, xxvii. 65, 66; Xxviil. 11.

κώνωψ, gnat, xxiii. 24,

μαλακία, disease, iv. 23; ix. 35; x. 1.

μίλιον, mile, v. 41.

μισϑύω, to hire, xx. 1, 7.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

μύλων (μύλος), mill, xxiv. 41 (but see Rev. xviii. 22, φωνὴ μύλου).

οὐδαμῶς, by no means, ii. 6.

παγιδεύω, entangle, xxii. 15.

παλιγγενεσία, restitution, xix. 28 (also in Tit. iii. 5, but in a differ- ent sense, regeneration of the in- dividual by the Holy Spirit).

παρακούω, neglect to hear, xviii. 17 (add Mark v. 36 for ἀκούω).

παρομοιάζω (ὁμοιάζω), to be like unto, xxiii. 27.

παροψίς, platter, xxiii. 25, 26.

πλατύς, wide, vii. 13.

πολυλογία, much speaking, vi. 7.

προφϑάνω, to anticipate, xvii. 25,

πυῤῥάζω, to be red, xvi. 2, ὃ.

ῥαπίζω, to smite with the palm-of

_ the hand, v. 39; xxvi. 67,

σαγήνη, drag-net, xiii. 47.

σεληνιάζομαι, to be lunatic (epilep~ tic), iv. 24; xvii. 15.

σιτιστός (from σῖτος, grain), fatted, plur. τὰ σιτιστά, fatlings, xxii. 4.

συνάντησις, with εἰς, to meet, viii. 84. L., Tr., W. and H. read ὑπάν- τησις, meeting; which occurs also in xxv.1; John xii. 13.

συναυξάνω (Mid.),to grow together, xiii. 80.

τάλαντον, talent, xviii. 24; xxv. 15, 16, 20, 22, 24, 25, 28,

τελευτή, death, ii. 15.

τραπεζίτης, exchanger, xxv. 27.

τρύπημα, eye of a needle (i. 9. τρῆ- pa, Luke xviii. 25), xix. 24.

τύφω (Pass.), to smoke, xii. 20.

φράζω, to declare, xiii, 36 (dtaca- φέω) ; xv. 15.

φυτεία, plant, xv. 13.

χλαμύς, robe, xxvii. 28, 31,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 51

MARK.

Mark’s Greek is perhaps the poorest, judged by a classical standard, but it has a peculiar vivacity and freshness which prove his originality and indepen- dence. The judgment of St. Augustin, Griesbach, and Baur, that he wasa mere abbreviator of Matthew, or of both Matthew and Luke, has been thoroughly reversed by modern research.’

Mark, the companion and “interpreter” of Peter, faithfully recorded, “ without omission or misrepre- sentation ” (as Papias says), the preaching of Peter, and reflects his first observations and impressions. There was a natural sympathy between the teacher and the pupil. Both had a sanguine temperament and a gift of quick observation; both were fresh and enthusiastic, but liable to sudden changes; both erred and recovered—Peter in denying, and again laboring and dying for Christ; Mark in running away in his youth at the betrayal, and leaving Paul on his first mission tour, but returning to him as a useful companion, and faithfully serving Peter, who ealls him his “son.” Both had a restless energy which urged them on to preach the Gospel from place to place and land to land till they reached Rome, the centre of the world. They were men of action rather than thought, practical workers rather than contemplative divines.

Mark records few of the speeches of our Lord, and dwells chiefly on his works, selecting those which

1 Especially by Weisse, Wilke, Holtzmann, Ewald, Weiss.

52 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

excite astonishment and amazement, and would ap- peal with peculiar force to the Roman mind, so fond of displays of conquering power. In this respect Mark is the very reverse of Matthew.

Mark is brief and sketchy, but has a number of graphic touches, not found in the other evangelists, which give vividness to the scene, as i. 13 (“he was with the wild beasts ”’); ii. 2 (“there was no longer room for them, no, not even about the door’’); iii. 10 (“they pressed upon him”); iii. 20 (“they could not so much as eat bread”); iv. 37; v.3,4. He is fond of pictorial participles, as ἀναβλέψας, ἐμβλέψας, περιβλεψάμενος, ἀναπηδήσας, κύψας, ἐμβριμησάμενος, ἐπιστραφείς, ἀποστενάξας. He expresses the emo- tions of astonishment by a reduplication of the questions and by exclamations. He quotes words and phrases in the original Aramaic, as Zalitha kuma, Ephphathah, and Hlow βίοι. He characterizes the acting persons by names, relations, company, or situ- ation. He repeats again and again the adverb forth- with, straightway (ebSéwe, or evSbc), which is char- acteristic of the rapidity and rushing energy of his movement. ‘This word occurs more frequently in his Gospel than in all the other Gospels combined, and may be called his motto, like the American “Go ahead!” With this is connected his prefer- ence for the historical present. He loves affection- ate diminutives, as παιδίον (little child), κοράσιον (damsel), κυνάριον (little dog), ϑυγάτριον (little daughter), ἰχϑύδιον (small fish), ὠτάριον (little ear). He uses several Latin terms, as ξέστης (sextarius, a measure), κεντυρίων (centurio), κῆνσος (census),

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 53 σπεκουλάτωρ (speculator, a pikeman), and the Latin phrases ἐσχάτως ἔχειν (in extremis esse, to be at the point of death, v. 23), and τὸ ἱκανὸν ποιεῖν (satesfa- cere, to make satisfaction, xv. 15). This is all the more natural if he wrote in Rome for: Romans, as the ancient tradition uniformly affirms; but most of these Latinisms occur also in Matthew and Luke,

and even in the Talmud.

PrEcULIAR worps oF Mark, not occurring else- where in the New Test. (in all about 100):

ἀγρεύειν, to catch, xii, 13.

ἄλαλος, dumb, vii. 37; ix. 17, 25.

ἀλεκτοροφωνία, cockcrowing, xiii.

ἄναλος, saltless, insipid, ix. 50,

ἀναπηδάω, to leap up, x. 50.

avaorevazey, to sigh deeply, viii. 12.

ἀπὸ μακρόϑεν, from far, viii. 3.

ἀπόδημος, going abroad, xiii. 84,

ἀποστεγάζειν, to uncover, ii. 4.

ἀφρίζειν, to foam, ix. 18, 20.

yapioxery,to givein marriage, xii.25. (Tisch., W. and H. read γαμίζον- rat for the text.rec. γαμίσκονται.)

γναφεύς, fuller, ix. 3.

δισχίλιοι, two thousand, v. 13.

δύσκολος, hard, x.24. The adverb δυσκόλως (hardly, with difficulty) occurs once in all the Synoptists, in the discourse of Christ on the difficulty for rich men to enter the kingdom of God (Matt. xix. 23; Mark x. 23; Luke xviii. 24).

ϑανάσιμος, deadly, xvi. 18.

εἷς κατὰ εἷς, one by one, xiv. 19. (This occurs also in the disputed

passage, John viii. 9, and ἕν xa’ ἕν in Rev. iv. 8.)

εἶτεν, then, iv. 28.

ἐκϑ͵αμβεῖσϑαι, to be greatly amazed, ix. 15; xiv. 33; xvi. 5, 6.

ἐναγκαλίζεσϑαι, to take in one’s arms, ix.36; x. 16.

ἐνείλέω, to wrap in, xv. 46.

ἔννυχα, in the night, i. 35.

ἐξάπινα, suddenly, ix. 8.

ἐξουδενόω, to set at naught, ix. 12.

éEwSev, from without, vii. 15, 18.

ἐπισυντρέχειν,ἴο run together, ix. 25.

ἐπιρράπτω, to sew on, 21.

κωμόπολις, town, i. 38,

feSopia, border, vii. 24. (But Tisch., Treg., W. and H. read τὰ ὅρια.)

μογιλάλος, having an impediment in his speech, vii. 32.

vouvexwe, discreetly, xii, 84.

πρασιαὶ πρασιαΐ, in ranks, vi. 40.

προμεριμνᾶν, to take thought be- forehand, xiii. 11.

προσάββατυν, Sabbath-eve, xv. 42.

προσκεφάλαιον, cushion, iv. 88,

προσορμίζεσϑαι, to draw to the shore, vi. 53,

54

πυγμῇ 0} the fist (up tothe elbow), R. V. diligently, A. V. oft, vii. 3.

σμυρνίζειν, mingle with myrrh, xv. 23.

σπεκουλάτωρ, a soldier of the guard, vi. 27.

στιβάς, twig, xi. 8.

συνϑλίβειν, to throng, v. 24, 31.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

τηλαυγῶς, Clearly, viii. 25.

ὑπερπερισσῶς, beyond measure, vii, 37.

ὑπολήνιον, wine-vat, the under-vat of a wine-press, into which the juice of the grapes flowed, xii. 1.

χαλκίον, brazen vessel, vii. 4.

ὠτάριον, ear, xiv. 47.

LUKE.

Luke is the most literary among the evangelists.’ He was evidently a man of considerable education, and a congenial companion of Paul, the scholar among the apostles. He was as admirably suited for Paul as Mark was for Peter. He pays regard to contemporary secular history, refers to the mem- bers of the Herodian family, the emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, the census of the Syrian gov- ernor Quirinius, the procurators Felix and Festus, and furnishes us the key for several important chronological dates.

He was a physician (Col. iv. 14). His medical vocabulary in the accounts of miracles of healing, and throughout the general narrative, shows famil- larity with the ancient medical writers, or at all events agrees with technical usage.”

1 Renan (Les Evangiles, p. 232): “ L’Kvangile de Luc est le plus littéraire des Evangiles.” He also calls it “le plus beau livre qu’il y ait” (p, 283). He admires the classic style, the joyful tone, and charming poetry of the book.

? Rev. W. K. Hobart, LL.D., of Trinity College, Dublin, has published a work on The Medical Language of St. Luke (Dublin University Press, 1882, 305 pages), in which he proves, from internal evidence, that “the Gospel according to St. Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were written by the same person, and that the writer was a medical man,” For this purpose over

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 55

He is equally familiar with nautical terms, which are correct without being strictly technical. His account of the voyage and shipwreck of Paul in the last two chapters of Acts, according to the testi- mony of experts, gives us fuller and more accurate information about ancient navigation than any other single document of antiquity.’

Luke’s style varies considerably. Where he writes independently, he uses the best language. The brief historiographic preface to his Gospel—the only one in the Gospels—is a period of purest Greek, and admired for its grace, modesty, and dignity. It may be favorably compared with the prefaces of Herod- otus and Thucydides. They excel alike in brevity, tact, and point; but the anonymons preface of the Evangelist is as striking for its modesty and love of truth as the prefaces of the great heathen historians are for vanity and love of glory.” In the second

four hundred words and phrases, for the most part peculiar to these two books, are compared with the use of the same words and phrases in Hippocrates, Aretzeus, Dioscorides, and Galen.

1 See James Smith, The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, 4th ed. 1880 (revised by Walter E. Smith, with a Preface by the Lord Bishop of Carlisle); the respective chapters in the biographical works of Conybeare and Howson, Lewin, and Farrar, on St. Paul; and the commentaries of Hackett, Lechler, Howson and Spence, and others, on Acts, ch, xxvii. and xxviii. James Smith, of Jordanhill, Scotland (b. 1782, d. 1867), was not a professional theologian, but a commodore of the Royal Northern Yacht Club, and familiar by long residence in Gibraltar and Malta with naviga- tion in the Mediterranean. His book is a classic in this department, and has a permanent evidential value.

* The preface of Herodotus has nearly the same number of words (40) as that of Luke (42), and is as follows: Ἡροδότου ᾿Αλικαρνασῆος ἱστορίης ἀπόδειξις ἥδε" ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνϑρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ ϑαυμαστὰ, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ

56 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

part of the Acts, where Luke writes as an eye- witness, he likewise uses pure Greek. But where he translates from the Hebrew, as in the history of the infancy, in the songs of Zachariah, Mary, and Simeon, his language has a strongly Hebraizing and highly poetic coloring. This proves his con- scientious fidelity. The greater part of the Gos- pel and the first part of the Acts occupy a mid- dle position between classic Greek and Hebrew Greek, and show the frequent use of documentary sources.

Among the minor peculiarities of Luke, as com- pared with Matthew and Mark, we may mention the following. He has νομικός or νομοδιδάσκαλος. for γραμματεύς, τὸ εἰρημένον in quotations for pnSév, νῦν for ἄρτι, λίμνη of the lake of Galilee for ϑάλασσα, ἑσπέρα for ὀψία. He frequently uses the attraction of the relative pronoun and the participial construe- tion. He likes the word χαρά, in accordance with the spirit of cheerfulness which animates his books.’ He very often speaks of the Holy Spirit, especially in the Acts, which may be called the History of the Spirit in the apostolic age; and he alone relates the pentecostal miracle.’

There is a striking resemblance between the spirit and style of Luke and Paul. They agree in the re-

βαρβάροισι ἀποδειχϑέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τὰ τε ἄλλα Kai OV ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι. See Schafi, Church History, 1. 656.

1 Luke i. 14; ii. 10; viii. 13; x.17; xv.7,10; xxiv. 41,52; Acts viii. 8; xiii. 52; xv. 3.

2 πνεῦμα, either with or without ἅγιον, occurs in the Acts no less than fifty times (if I counted right).

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 57

port of the words of institution of the Lord’s Supper. They are fond of such characteristic words as χάρις, ἔλεος, πίστις, δικαιοσύνη, δίκαιος, πνεῦμα ἅγιον, γνῶσις, δύναμις κυρίου."

Luke has the richest vocabulary among the Sy- noptists. The total number of words in his Gospel is 19,209; that of Matthew, 18,222; that of Mark, 11,158. The number of words peculiar to Luke, and not found in Matthew and Mark, is 12,969, or 26% per cent.; that of Matthew, 10,363, or 214 per cent.; that of Mark, 43814, or 9 per cent.? Luke’s Gospel has ὅδ, and the Acts 1385 ἅπαξ λεγόμενα. The number of words in the Gospel of Luke which do not occur elsewhere in the Greek Testament is about 300. The peculiar vocabulary of Acts num- bers about 470."

WorDS PECULIAR TO THE GOSPEL OF LUKE:

ἀγκάλαι,, arms, ii. 28. ἀναίδεια, importunity, xi. 8

ἄγρα, draught, haul, v. 4, 9. ἀνάπηρος, maimed, xiv, 13, 21. ἀγραυλέω, to abide in the field, ii. 8. | ἀναπτύσσω; to unroll, to open, iv. 17 ἀγωνία, agony, xxii. 44. (but the critical editors read αἰσϑάνομαι, to perceive, ix. 45. avotéac).

αἰχμάλωτος, captive, iv. 18 (19). avaracoopat, to set forth in order, adXoyerne, stranger, xvii. 18. iT. ἀνάβλεψις, recovery of sight, iv. ἀναφωνέω, to speak out, i. 42.

18, ἀνέκλειπτος, unfailing, xii. 33, ἀνάδειξις, showing, i. 80. ἀνένδεκτος, impossible, xvii. 1. ἀνάϑημα, gift, xxi. 5 (ἀνάϑεμα oc- ᾿ἀνϑομολογέομαι, to give thanks, ii.

curs several times in Paul), 88, Υ

1 See a long list of parallel passages in Holtzmann, /. c. 516 sqq.

3 The above estimate is made from Tischendorf’s Greek Testament, as printed in Rushbrooke’s Synopticon (1882). See my Church History, revised ed. 1882, vol. i. p. 596.

* See lists in Thayer-Grimm, p. 703,

58

ἀντιβάλλω, to cast back and forth, to exchange, xxiv. 17.

ἀντικαλέω, to bid again, xiv. 12,

ἀπαρτισμός, completion, with εἰς, to complete, xiv. 28.

ἀπελπίζω, hope for again, vi. 35.

ἀποϑλίβω, to press, to crowd, viii. 45.

ἀποκλείω, to shut, xiii. 25.

ἀπολείχω (ἐπιλείχω), to lick, xvi. 21.

ἀπομάσσομαι, to wipe off, x. 11.

ἀποπλύνω, to wash, v.2; but Tisch. (ed. viii.) reads (with &) ἔπλυ- vay, Lachm, and W. and H. ἔπλυ- γον (with Β). See Rev. vii. 14.

ἀποστοματίζω, provoke to speak, xi. 53.

ἀποψύχω (expiro), to leave off breathing, to faint, xxi. 26 (comp. ὡσεὶ νεκροί, Matt. xxviii. 4).

ἀρχιτελώνης, chief among the pub- licans, xix. 2.

ἀστράπτω, to lighten, to flash, xvii. 24; to shine, xxiv. 4.

ἀσώτως, riotously, xv. 18,

ἄτεκνος, childless, xx. 28, 29.

αὐτόπτης, eye-witness, i. 2.

ἄφαντος, with γίνομαι, to vanish out of sight, xxiv. 31.

ἀφρός, froth, foam, ix. 39.

ἀφυπνόω, to fall asleep, viii. 23.

BaSivw, to deepen, vi. 48.

βαλλάντιον, purse, x. 4; xii. 33; xxii. 35, 36.

Bapivopa, to be overcharged, xxi.

βελόνη, needle, xviii. 25. Bodn, ἃ cast, a throw, xxii. 41. βουνός, hill, 111. 5; xxiii. 30. γελάω, to laugh, vi. 21, 25,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

δακτύλιος, ring, xv. 22.

δεσμέω (text. rec. and Lachmann), to bind, viii. 29, Tisch., Treg., W. H. read δεσμεύω, which is also used by Matthew (xxiii. 4), and Luke in Acts xxii. 4.

διαγογγύζω, to murmur, xv. 2; xix.

διαλαλέω, to commune, to converse, i. 65; vi. 11.

διαλείπω, to cease, vii. 45.

διαμερίζω, to divide, xi. 17,18; xii. 52, 58; xxii. 17.

διαμερισμός, division, xii. 51.

διανεύω, to beckon, i. 22,

διανόημα, thought, xi. 17.

διανυκτερεύω, to continue all night, vi. 12, -

διαπραγματεύομαι, to ae by trad- ing, xix. 15.

διασείω, to shake throughout, to do violence to, iii. 14.

διαταράσσω, to trouble, i. 29.

διαφυλάσσω, to keep, iv. 10.

διαχωρίζομαι, to depart, ix, 33,

διήγησις, narration, i. 1.

δοχή, feast, v. 29; xiv. 18,

ἐγκάϑετος, spy, xx. 20,

ἔγκυος, great with child, ii, 5,

ἐδαφίζω, lay even with the ground, xix. 44,

égiZw, to accustom; pass., to be cus- tomary, ii. 27.

ἐκκομίζω, to carry out, vii. 12,

ἐκμυκτηρίζω, to deride, xvi. 14; xxiii. 35.

ἐκτελέω, to finish, xiv. 29, 30.

ἐκβάλλω, with εἰς, to cast into, xii, 5.

ἐκχωρέω, to depart out, xxi. 21.

évyevw, to make signs to, i, 62,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

ἐπαϑροίζομαι, to be gathered thick together, xi. 29.

ἐπειδήπερ, forasmuch as, i. 1.

ἐπεῖδον, to look on, i. 25.

ἐπικρίνω, to give sentence, xxiii. 24.

(ἐπιλείχω, for ἀπολείχω;, tolick over, xvi. 21; see ἀπολείχω.)

ἐπιμελῶς, diligently, xv. 8.

ἐπιπορεύομαι, with πρός, to come to, viii. 4.

ἐπισιτισμός, victuals, ix. 12.

ἐπισχύω, to be more fierce, xxiii. 5.

ἔσϑησις, garment, xxiv. 4.

ἐξαιτέομαι, to ask for, xxii. 31.

ἐξαστράπτω, to glister, ix. 29.

evpopéw, to bring forth plentifully, xii. 16.

ἡμιϑανής, half dead, x. 30.

ϑορυβάζω (text. rec. rupBaZw), to confuse by noise, to disturb, x. 41.

Spavu, to bruise, iv. 18.

ϑρόμβος, large drop, xxii. 44.

ϑυμιάω, to burn incense, i. 9.

ἱδρώς, sweat, xxii. 44.

καϑοπλίζω, to arm, xi. 21.

κατακρημνίζω, to cast down head- long, iv. 29.

καταλιϑάζω, to stone, xx. 6.

κατανεύω, to beckon unto, v. 7.

καταπλέω, to arrive, viii. 26.

κατασύρω, to drag, xii. 58.

κατασφάζω, to slaughter down, to slay, xix. 27.

καταψύχω, to cool, xvi. 24.

κέραμος, tiling, v. 19.

κεράτιον, husk, carob-pod, xv. 16.

κλινίδιον, couch, ν. 19, 24.

κόραξ, raven, xii. 24.

κόρος, a measure, xvi. 7.

κραιπάλη, surfeiting, xxi. 84.

λαμπρῶς, sumptuously, xvi, 19,

59

λαξευτός, hewn in stone, xxiii. 53.

λεῖος, smooth, ili. 5.

λῆρος, idle tales, xxiv. 11.

μακρός, far, xv. 13; xix. 12.

μεριστῆς, divider, xii. 14.

μίσϑιος, hired servant, xv. 17, 19.

μόγις, hardly, ix. 39.

voootd, brood, xiii, 84,

oikovopéw, to be steward, xvi, 2.

ὄμβρος, shower, xii. 54.

ὀπτός, broiled, xxiv. 42.

ὀρεινός, hilly, i. 39, 65.

ὀφρύς, brow, iv. 29.

παμπληϑεί, all at once, xxiii. 18.

πανδοχεῖον, inn, x. 34.

πανδοχεύς, host, x. 35.

παράδοξος, strange thing (neut.), v. 26.

παρακαλύπτω, to hide, ix. 45,

παράλιος, sea coast, vi. 17.

παρϑενία, Virginity, ii. 36.

πεδινός, with τόπος, plain, vi. 17.

πενιχρός, POOr, XXi. 2.

πεντεκαιδέκατος, fifteenth, iii, 1.

περικρύπτω, to hide, i. 24.

περικυκλύω, to compass around, xix. 48.

περιοικέω, to dwell round about, i. 65.

περίοικος, neighbor, i. 58.

περισπάω, to distract, x. 40,

πινακίδιον, writing-tablet, 1, 63.

πλήμμυρα, flood, vi. 48.

πρεσβεία, embassy, message, xiv. 32; xix. 14.

προσαναβαίνω, to go up, xiv. 10,

προσαναλίσκω, to spend, viii. 43.

προσδαπανάω, to spend more, x. 35.

προσεργάζομαι, to gain, xix. 16.

προφέρω, to bring forth, vi. 45.

πτύσσω, to roll up, iv. 20,

60

ῥῆγμα, ruin, vi. 49.

σᾶλος, waves, xxi. 25.

σίκερα, strong drink, i. 15.

σινιάζω, to sift, xxii. 31.

σιτευτύς, fatted, xv. 23, 27, 30.

σιτομέτριον, portion of meat, xii. 42.

oKkanTw,to dig, vi.48, xiii. 8; xvi. 3.

σκιρτάω, to leap, i. 41, 44; vi. 23.

σκῦλον, spoil, xi, 22.

oopoc, bier (coffin), vii. 14.

σπαργανόω, to wrap in swaddling clothes, ii. 7, 12.

ovyyevic, kinswoman (for συγγενής), i, 36. :

συγκαλύπτω, to cover, xii. 2.

συγκατατίϑεμαι, to deposit together, to consent to, xxiii. 51 (with εἰμί).

συγκύπτω, to be bowed together, xiii. 11.

συγκυρία, chance, x. 81.

συκάμινος, sycamine tree, xvii. 6.

συκομωρέα, Or -opéa (the spelling of W. and H. for -wpaia), syca- more tree, xix. 4.

συκοφαντέω, to accuse falsely, iii. 14; xix. 8,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

συμφύω (pass.), to spring up with, viii. 7.

συμφωνία, music, xv. 25,

τετραρχξω, to be tetrarch, iii, 1.

τραῦμα, wound, x. 34,

τρῆμα, a hole, the eye of a needle, © Xviil. 25 (the reading of Lachm., Tisch., Treg., W. and H. for the text. rec, τρυμαλία).

τρυγών, turtle-dove, ii. 24,

(τυρβάζω, see ϑορυβάζω.)

ὑγρός, green, xxiii. 81.

ὑδρωπικός, dropsical, xiv. 2.

ὑποκρίνομαι, to feign, xx. 20.

ὑποστρωννύω, to spread, xix, 86.

ὑποχωρέω, to withdraw one’s self, v. 16; ix. 10.

ὑφαίνω, to weave, to spin, xii. 27.

φάραγξ, valley, 111, 5.

φάτνη, manger, ii. 7,12, 16; xiii. 15.

φίλη (fem.), friend, xv. 9.

φιλονεικία, strife, xxii, 24,

φόβητρον, fearful sight, xxi. 11,

φρονίμως, wisely, xvi. 8.

χάσμα, gulf, xvi. 26.

wor, egg, xi. 12.

Tue Nautica, VocapuLary of Luke is rich and

remarkable. It is used mostly in the last two chap- ters of Acts. He describes the voyage and ship- wreck of Paul evidently as an eye-witness, like a man who was often at sea as a close and accurate observer, but not as a professional seaman; he no- tices effects and incidents which a seaman would omit as unimportant, but he omits to notice causes and details which would appear prominently in an official report. He uses no less than sixteen verbs, and uses them (as James Smith has conclusively

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 61

shown) most appropriately, to describe the motion and management of a ship; and all of them are nautical terms, and with the exception of three are

peculiar to his two writings.

They are as follows

(seven being compounds of πλέω):

πλέω, to sail, Luke viii. 23; Acts xxi. 3; xxvii. 6, 24.

ἀποπλέω, to sail from, Acts xiii. 4; xiv. 26; xx. 15; xxvii. 1.

βραδυπλοέω (from βραδύς, slow), to sail slowly, Acts xxvii. 7.

διαπλέω, to sailthrough (not “over,” |

avayopa, to get under way, to put to sea, Acts xxvii. 4.

διαπεράω, to sail over, Acts xxi. 2.

διαφέρομαι, to be driven to and fro, Acts xxvii. 27.

ἐπικέλλω, to run the ship ashore, Acts xxvii. 41.

as in the A. V.), Acts xxvii. 5. ἐκπλέω, to sail away, Acts xv. 39; xviii. 18; xx. 6. καταπλέω, to arrive, Luke viii. 26. ὑποπλέω, to sail under the lee, Acts

evSudpopéw, to make a straight course, Acts xvi. 11; xxi. 1.

παραλέγομαι (middle), to sail by, Acts xxvii. 8, 13.

ὑποτρέχω (aor. 2, iwidpapor), to

xxvii. 4, 7. run under the lee, Acts xxvii. 16. mapamhéw, to sail by, Acts xx.| φέρομαι (pass.), to be driven, Acts 16.

Xxvii. 15, 17,

To these may be added the phrases for lightening the ship: ἐκβολὴν ἐποιοῦντο, they began to throw the freight overboard, Acts xxvii. 18; and ἐκούφιζον τὸ πλοῖον, they lightened the ship, Acts xxvii. 38. Julius Pollux mentions ἐκβολὴν ποιήσασϑαι τῶν φορτίων and κουφίσαι τὴν ναῦν among the technical terms for taking cargo out of aship. See Smith, ὦ. ὁ. pp. 114, 139.

1 Smith, ὦ, c. p. 103, remarks on ὑποδραμόντες, having run under the lee of: “St. Luke exhibits here, as on every other occasion, the most perfect command of nautical terms, and gives the utmost precision to his language by selecting the most appropriate; they ran before the wind to leeward of Clauda, hence it is ὑποδραμόντες : they sailed with a side wind to leeward of Cyprus and Crete, hence it is ὑπεπλεύσαμεν."

62 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

PAUL.

The Apostle of the Gentiles had a cosmopolitan preparation for his work, being a Hellenist by birth, a Roman citizen, and a Hebrew scholar. He is the only apostle who enjoyed a regular rabbinical edu- cation, and was trained to logical reasoning. He was also, to a limited extent, acquainted with classi- cal literature, and quotes from three heathen poets (Aratus, Menander, and Epimenides)—the only ex- amples of the kind in the New Testament.’ He is the founder of Christian theology; he had to create a theological vocabulary by stamping a peculiar meaning upon a number of words which express fundamental Christian ideas, as δικαιοσύνη, δικαίωσις, πίστις, ἀγάπη, σάρξ, πνεῦμα, ἀπολύτρωσις, ἱλασμός, karaAAayh, χάρις, ἔλεος, εἰρήνη.

The style of Paul reflects the strongly marked individuality of his nature purified and ennobled by divine grace. Its chief characteristics are fire and force. He is intensely in earnest, and throws his whole soul into his epistles. His ideas overflow the ordinary boundaries of speech. The pressure of thought is so strong that it breaks through the rules of grammar. Hence the anacolutha. His style is dialectic and argumentative. He reasons now from Scripture, now from premises, now from analogy, or from experience, from effect, from objec-

1 Jerome hit the proper medium between the two extremes of an undue overestimate and an underestimate of Paul’s Greek learning, when he said, ad Gal. iv. 24, that Paul knew secular literature (literas seculares), but imperfectly (licet non ad perfectum).

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 63

tions, and ex absurdo. He frequently uses logical particles and phrases, as οὖν, apa, ἄρα οὖν (hane igt- tur, therefore then, 80 then, twelve times), * γάρ, εἰ γάρ, εἰ δέ, οὐκέτι, τί οὖν, τί οὖν ἐροῦμαι, ἐρεῖς οὖν, οὐ μόνον δέ... ἀλλά. He introduces and answers objections, and drives the opponent to the wall by close argu- ment. He ts fond of antitheses, paradoxes, oxymora, and paronomasizs. Farrar.cuunts “ upwards of fifty specimens of upwards of thirty Greek rhetorical figures” in Paul.’

Here are some of these antithetic and paradoxical phrases: εἰς τὸ εἶναι αὐτὸν δίκαιον καὶ δικαιοῦντα τὸν ἐκ πίστεως ᾿Ιησοῦ (Rom. iii. 26): διὰ νόμου νόμῳ ἀπέ- ϑανον (Gal. 11. 19): ζῶ δὲ οὐκέτι ἐγώ, ζῇ δὲ ἐν ἐμοὶ Χριστός (Gal. ii. 20): φϑόνος and φόνος : ἀσύνετος and ἀσύνϑετος : ἄφρων and φρόνιμος : ἄνομος and ἔννομος : μὴ ὑπερφρονεῖν παρ᾽ ὃ δεῖ φρονεῖν, ἀλλὰ φρονεῖν εἰς τὸ σωφρονεῖν (not to be high-minded above what we ought to be minded, but to be so minded as to be sober-minded, Rom. xii. 3): ἀόρατα . . . καϑορᾶται (¢nvisebilia videntur, unseen things are seen, Rom. i. 20): παρ᾽ ἐλπίδα ἐπ᾽ ἐλπίδι (Rom. iv. 18): τὰ μὴ ὄντα ὡς ὄντα (Rom. iv. 17): TO μωρὸν TOV Jeov σοφώτερον τῶν avdpwrwyv (1 Cor. 1.25): ὅταν. . . ἀσϑενῶ, τότε δυνατός εἰμι (2 Cor. xii. 10). Specimens of cutting sarcasm: κατατομή (Phil. iii. 2, with reference to the περιτομή of the carnal Judaizers of the malignant type: concision, circumcision); ἀποκόψονται (Gal. v. 12, with refer-

1 The Life and Work of St. Paul, i. 629 sq. His two Excursuses on the style and rhetoric of Paul are able and instructive,

1 i.

64 Ὁ LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

\ ence to\the same Judaizing perverters of the Gos- pel).

Paul disclaims classic elegance, and calls himself “rude in speech” (ἰδιώτης τῷ λόγῳ), though not in knowledge (οὐ τῇ γνώσει). He knew that he ear- ried the heavealy treasure in earthen vessels, that the power and grace of God might .become more manifest.” His speéchs at-times rugged and irreg- ular, but always vigorous, bold, terse, expressive. It rises now to lofty eloquence, as at the close of the eighth chapter of Romans, now to more than poetic beauty, as in the description of love in 1 Cor. xiii., which has no equal in all literature. We may compare his style to a thunderstorm with zigzag flashes of lightning that strike every project- ing point; or to a Swiss mountain torrent that now rushes over precipices in foaming rapids, now rests before taking a new leap, then calmly flows through green meadows.

Longinus, a heathen rhetorician of the third cen- tury, counted Παῦλος ὁ 'Γαρσεύς among the greatest orators, and a master of dogmatic style. Jerome charges him with using Cilician provincialisms (solecisms), but felt when reading his epistles as if he heard “non verba sed tonitrua.” Erasmus com- pares Paul’s style to thunder and lightning: “ ¢onat, Fulgurat, meras flammas loquitur Paulus.” He

1 2 Cor. xi. 6. Comp. 1 Cor. 1.17; ii. 1 sqq. "We must remember that he thus wrote to the Corinthians, who overestimated the arts of rhetoric. Meyer quotes Xenophon, who describes himself as an ἰδιώτης as com- pared with the Sophists (De Venat. 14, 3).

2 2 Cor, iv, 7,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 65

judged the closing verses of the eighth chapter of Romans to be equal in eloquence to any passage in Cicero: “ Quid unquam Cicero diait grandilo- guentius.” Calvin says of his writings: “fulmina sunt, non verba,” but he properly adds, in the very spirit of Paul and in view of his numerous anacolutha and ellipses, that by a singular providence of God the highest mysteries have been committed to us “ sub contemptibili verborum humilitate,’ that our faith may rest not on the power of human eloquence, but solely on the efficacy of the divine Spirit. Baur finds the peculiar stamp of Paul’s language in pre- cision and compression on the one hand, and in harshness and roughness on the other, which sug- gests that the thought is far too weighty for the expression, and can hardly find a fit form for the abundance of matter. He compares him to Thucyd- ides. Farrar does the same, and says that Paul has the style of genius, if he has not the genius of style.’ Renan, a good judge of rhetoric, but blinded by prejudice against Paul’s theology, speaks disparag- ingly of his prose, as Voltaire did of the poetry of Shakespeare, which he deemed semi-barbarous; yet Renan is obliged to mix praise with censure. “The

1 LZ. c.i.623. Farrar thinks, with Baur, that the style of Paul “more closely resembles the style of Thucydides than that of any other great writer of antiquity.” The great historian of the Peloponnesian war is by no means free from solecisms or barbarisms, obscurities, and rhetorical ar- tificialities. Jowett (Thuc. vol. i. Intr. p. xiv.) justly says: “The speeches of Thucydides everywhere exhibit the antitheses, the climaxes, the plays of words, the point which is no point, of the rhetorician, yet retain amid these defects of form a weight of thought to which succeeding historians can scarcely show the like.”

66 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

epistolary style of Paul,” he says,’ “is the most per- sonal that ever existed. His language is, if I dare eall it so, hackled (6royée), not a connected phrase. It is impossible to violate more boldly, I do not say the genius of the Greek language, but the logic of the human language. It is a rapid conversation, stenographically reported, and reproduced without correction. ... With his wonderful warmth of soul, Paul has a singular poverty of expression. .. . It is not barrenness, it is the vehemence of mind, and a perfect indifference as to the correctness of style.” Another Frenchman, Pressensé,* judges more just- ly: “ Paul’s own moral life struggled for expres- sion in his doctrine; and to give utterance to both at once, Paul created a marvellous language, rough and incorrect, but full of resource and invention, following his rapid leaps of thought, and bending to his sudden and sharp transitions. His ideas come in such rich abundance that they cannot wait for orderly expression ; they throng upon each other, and intermingle in seeming confusion; but the con- fusion is seeming only, for through it all a powerful argument steadily sustains the mastery. The tongue of Paul is, indeed, a tongue of fire.”

JOHN.

If Paul’s style resembles a rushing, foaming, storming Alpine torrent, John’s style may be com- pared to a calm, clear, deep Alpine lake in which

1 Saint Paul, ch. ix. p. 232. 2 Apostolic Era, p. 254,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 67

the sun, moon, and stars are reflected as in a mirror. The one sounds like a trumpet of war, the other like an anthem of peace. Simplicity and depth char- acterize the Gospel and the first Epistle of John. He is “ verlis facillumus, sensu difficillimus.”

He writes pure Greek as far as words and gram- mar are concerned, but he thinks in Hebrew; the Greek is, as it were, only the thin, transparent veil over the face. Renan, looking at the outside, says correctly that the style of the fourth Gospel “has nothing Hebrew, nothing Jewish, nothing Tal- mudic;” but Ewald, looking deeper into the inside, is more correct when he affirms that “in its true spirit and afflatus, no language can be more genu- inely Hebrew than that of John.” Keim speaks of the remarkable combination of genuine Greek facil- ity and ease with Hebrew simplicity and figurative- ness.. Westcott thinks that it is “altogether mis- leading” to speak of John’s Gospel as “ written in very pure Greek;” that it is free from solecisins because it avoids all idiomatic expressions; and that its grammar is common to all language. Godet

* Keim (Geschichte Jesu von Nazara, i. 116): “ Die Sprache des Buchs” [the 4th Gospel] “δέ ein merkwiirdiges Geftige adchtgriechischer Leichtig- keit und Gewandtheit und hebrdischer Ausdrucksweisen in ihrer ganzen Schlichtheit, Kindlichkeit, Bildlichkeit und wohl auch Unbeholfenheit. So hat sich die Union der Gegensdtze der Parteien selbst in der Sprache ver- kérpert.” What follows in Keim is a strange mixture of truth and error, owing to his want of sympathy with the spiritual character of this Gospel, in which he must acknowledge the simplicity of nature, the purest morality, and celestial glories (himmlische Herrlichkeiten), while yet he discovers in it the hidden arts of a post-apostolic literary forger. The contradiction is not in John, but in the judgment of his eritic,

68 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

characterizes the style of John as altogether unique in all literature, profane and religious, for childlike simplicity, transparent profundity, holy sadness, and holy vivacity, and calls it a Hebrew body with a Greek dress.. Weiss, in his recently published “Life of Jesus,” likewise emphasizes the Hebrew genius which animates the pure Greek of the fourth Gospel, and derives from it an argument for its Jo- hannean origin.”

* “ La langue de Vévangeliste n'a pas d’ analogue dans toute la littérature profane ou sacrée: simplicité enfantine et transparente profondeur, sainte mélancolie et vivacité non moins sainte; par dessus tout, suavité dun amour pur et doux.... Dans la langue de Jean, le vétement seul est grec, le corps est hébreu ; ou, comme le dit Luthardt, il y a une dme hébraique dans le lan- gage grec.”—Com. sur Vévang. de Saint Jean, 3d ed. thoroughly revised (Paris, 1881), vol. i. pp. 226, 232.

? The passage is worth quoting in full as a contribution to the solution of the Johannean problem: “ Man hat einst wohl gemeint, das reine Grie- chisch des Evangeliums passe nicht zu dem Fischer vom Gennezaretsee. Heute zweifelt Niemand mehr daran, dass gerade die niederen Stdnde Gali- laa’s im tdglichen Verkehr mit dem umwohnenden und tiberall bereits mitten in das eigene Volksthum eingedrungenen Griechenthum sich des Verstdnd- nisses der griechischen Sprache gar nicht entrathen konnten. Hatte vollends Johannes einige zwanzig Jahre bereits in griechischer Umgebung gelebt, so musste er sich eine gewisse Gewandtheit im Gebrauch der griechischen Sprache angeeignet haben. In der That aber blickt durch das griechische Gewand dieses Evangeliums iiberall der Stilcharakter des Paldstinensers hindurch. Diese unperiodische Satzbildung, diese einfachste Verkniipfung der Sdtze, die von dem reichen griechischen Partikelschatz zur Andeutung threr logischen Beziehung keinen Gebrauch macht, diese Vorliebe fiir Anti- thesen und Parallelismen, diese Umstdndlichkeit der Erzéhlungsweise und Wortarmuth im Ausdruck, diese ganz hebrdisch-artige Wortstellung zeigen mehr als einzelne Verstésse gegen griechisches Sprachgefihl, die doch auch nicht ganz fehlen, dass das Evangelium wohl griechisch geschrieben, aber hebrdisch gedacht ist. Die mit Vorliebe eingestreuten aramdischen Aus- driicke, die etymologisirende Deutung eines hebrdischen Namens (ix.7) lassen deutlich den Paldstinenser erkennen, dem nach einigen seiner Citate selbst der

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 69

John’s sentences are short and weighty—we may say, the shorter the weightier. They are co-ordinat- ed, not subordinated. They follow each other by a sort of constructive parallelism, or symmetrical and rhythmical progression, after the manner of Hebrew poetry. There is no dialectical process of argu- mentation, no syllogistic particles (like ἄρα), no in- volved periods, as in Paul, but a succession of asser- tions which have the self-evidencing force of truth as perceived by immediate intuition. Hence he often uses the words ϑεᾶσϑαι, ϑεωρεῖν, ἑωρακέναι, μαρτυρία. Sometimes he moves by contrasts, or antithetic parallelisms, without connecting links: “The law was given by Moses: grace and truth came by Jesus Christ” (i. 17); “No one ever saw God: the only begotten Son revealed him ” (i. 18); “Ye are from beneath: I am from above” (viii. 23); “1 am the vine: ye are the branches” (xv. 5).

John’s ideas and vocabulary are limited; but he has a number of key-words of unfathomable depth and transcendent height, and repeats them again and again—as “life,” “light,” “truth,” “love.”’ He Grundtext der heiligen Schrift nicht ganz unbekannt gewesen zu sein scheint.” Das Leben Jesu, Berlin, 1882, Ba. i. 90.

1 ζωή occurs 36 times in the Gospel (with the verb ζῆν 16 times), φῶς 23 times, ἀλήϑεια 25 times, ἀληϑινός 9 times, δόξα 20 times (with δοξάζεσϑαι 24 times), μαρτυρία 14 times (with μαρτυρεῖν 33 times), γινώσκω 55 times, πιστεύειν 98 times (but πίστις only in 1 John v. 4). See Luthardt, i. 20 sq. (Gregory’s translation); Godet, i. 227 (8d ed.). Hase (Geschichte Jesu, 1876, p. 43) makes a striking remark on this repe- titiousness of John: “Er ist nicht ein beweglicher, der Rede méchtiger Geist, sondern still und tief, festhangend an Wenigem ; aber dieses Wenige ist das

Gottliche selbst, dem sein Sinnen und seine Liebe gilt, ein Adler der still in der Hohe schwebt,”

70 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

kisses a divine and eternal meaning into these terms, and hence he is never weary of them. God himself, as revealed in Christ, is life, light, and love. And what more can philosophy and theology say in so few words? John likes grand antitheses, under which he views the antagonistic forces of the world —as life and death, light and darkness, truth and falsehood, belief and unbelief, love and hatred, Christ and Antichrist, God and the Devil. On the other hand, we look in vain in his Gospel for some of the most important terms, as ἐκκλησία, εὐαγγέλιον, μετάνοια, παραβολή, σοφία, but the substance is there in different form. He uses few particles, but uses them very often—namely, καί, δέ, we, ἵνα, and espe- cially οὖν, which with him is not syllogistic, but marks simply the progress in the narrative or re- sumes the train of thought (like the German nwn).’ He never employs the optative. He is fond of di- minutives (as παιδάριον, παιδία, rexvia), and the last word reported of him is the address, “ Little chil- dren, love one another.” He gives many circum- stantial details in his narratives, as in the healing of the man born blind, whose character is drawn to the

life. He alone applies the significant term ‘‘ Logos”

(which means reason and speech, ratio and oratio) to Christ as the revealer and interpreter of God ;? he calls him the “only begotten Son,” “the Light of

? The English Revision renders οὖν usually by “therefore,” but this is heavy and pedantic in English. “So” and “then” would answer as well in many cases, as in John iv, 5, 28; xiii. 6.

? John i.1,14; 1 John i.1; comp. Rev. xix. 13,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 71

the world,” “the Bread of life,” “the good Shep- herd,” “the Vine ”—figures which have guided the Church ever since in her meditations on Christ. He uses the double ἀμήν (verily) in the speeches of our Lord. He never calls the forerunner of Christ “ the Baptist,” but simply “John.” He represents the Holy Spirit as the “ Paraclete” or Advocate who pleads the cause of the believer here on earth, while Christ, who is also called “ Paraclete,”’ represents him at the throne of God.’

Westcott calls the Gospel of John “the divine Hebrew Epic,” and says of his style:* “The sim- plicity, the directness, the particularity, the emphasis of St. John’s style, give his writings a marvellous power, which is not perhaps felt at first. Yet his words seem to hang about the reader till he is forced to remember them. Each great truth sounds like the burden of a strain, ever falling upon the ear with a calm persistency which secures attention. And apart from forms of expression with which all are early familiarized, there is no book in the Bible which has furnished so many figures of the Person and Work of Christ which have passed into the common use of Christians as the Gospel of St. John.” Luthardt* speaks of “the calmness and serenity” which are spread over this marvellous book, and reveal a soul that has reached peace and tranquil- lity at mature age after a long struggle with a fiery

1 John xiv. 16,26; xv. 26; xvi. 7; 1 John ii. 1.

2 In his Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, p. 278, Comp. the remarks in his Com. on John, Introd. p. i.—iii.

3 Com. on John, i. 62 (Gregory’s translation).

72 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

and violent temper. ‘‘ We can see his natural char- acter in his short decisive sentences, his emphatic way of building sentences, the want of connection in his array of sentences, and in the use of contrasts in his speech. His nature is not destroyed. It is purified, brightened, raised to the truth, and so taken into the service of the loved Master. It came to rest on the bosom of Jesus, and found peace as his own. The fire of youth has left its calm light and its warm enthusiasm. It breathes through the most quiet speech, and raises the language to the rhyth- mical beauty of Hebrew poetry and to a very hymn

of praise.”

WorDs PECULIAR TO JOHN (about 130 in the Gospel and the Epistles; for the Apocalypse, see next para-

graph):

ἁλιεύω, to fish (rendered in A. V. and R. V. “to go a-fishing ”), xxi. 3.

ἀλλαχόϑεν, from elsewhere, x. 1.

ἀλόη, aloe, aloe-wood (greatly prized as a perfume), xix. 39.

[ἀναμάρτητος, sinless (“ without sin” in A. V. and R. V.), viii. 7. ]

ἀντλέω, to draw, 11. 8; iv. 7, 15.

ἄντλημα, haustrum, a bucket, iv. LM,

ἄραφος (dppagoc), seamless, xix. 23

βιβρώσκω, to eat, vi. 13.

γέρων, an old man (senezx), iii. 4.

δακρύω, to weep, xi. 35.

δειλιάω, to be afraid, xiv. 27.

ἐβραϊστί (so W. and Hort, but the usual spelling is ἑβραϊστί), He- brew, or in the Hebrew tongue

(hebraice), v. 2; xix. 13, 17, 20; xx. 16 (also in Rev. ix. 11; xvi. 16).

ἐκκεντέω, to pierce, xix. 37 (also Rev. i. 7).

ἐμπορίον, merchandise, ii. 16.

ἐπαυτοφώρῳ, in the very act, viii. 4 (in the disputed pericope).

Shen, sheath, xviii. 11.

Spéupa, cattle, iv. 12.

κέρμα, money, ii. 15.

keppatioTnc, money-changer, ii. 14,

κηπουρός, gardener, xx. 15.

κλῆμα, branch, xv. 2, 4, 5, 6.

κοίμησις, taking rest, xi. 13.

κολυμβήϑρα, pool, v. 2, 4 (Ὁ), 7; ix. 7, 11.

κρίϑινος, of barley (adj.), vi. 9, 18.

λέντιον, towel, xiii. 4, 5.

λόγχη, Spear, xix. 34,

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

μή τις ; OF μήτις ; any one? iv. 33; vii. 48,

μίγμα, mixture, xix. 39.

(νίκη, victory, 1 John v. 4.)

virrnp, basin, xiii. 5.

[ vdonpa, disease, v. 4. ]

vioow (viTTw), to pierce, xix. 34.

6Zw, to stink, xi. 39.

παράκλητος, advocate, xiv. 16, 26; xv. 26; xvi. 7 (of the Holy Spir- it); 1 John ii. 1 (of Christ).

πενϑερός, father-in-law, xviii. 13.

προσκυνητῆς, worshipper, iv. 23.

πτύσμα, spittle, ix. 6.

péw, to flow, vii. 38.

-

JOHN IN HEBREW. idiomatic translation of

73

σκέλος, leg, xix. 31, 32, 33.

oxnvornyia, feast of tabernacles, vii. 2.

τετράμηνος, --- voy, quadrimestris, of four months, iv. 35.

τίτλος, title, xix. 19, 20.

pavoc, lantern, xviii. 3.

φοίνιξ, palm-tree, xii. 13 (also Rev. vii. 9).

φραγέλλιον, scourge, ii. 15.

(χάρτης, paper, 2 John 12.)

χείμαρρος, brook, wady, xviii. 1.

χολάω, to be angry, vii. 23.

(χρίσμα, unction, 1 John ii. 20, 27.)

ψωμίον, sop, xiii. 26, 27, 30.

The following faithful and

the Prologue to John’s

Gospel, by Professor Delitzsch, will illustrate the

Hebrew genius of his Greek style.

Hebrew New Testament,

It is from the published by the British

and Foreign Bible Society (1880). John i. 1-18.

NADI aI vA miata ΘΟ ΞΝῚ ΠΝ ms mn P55 mn

2m$ MUNDI AN Nn Pornban

gqIp>a08 ἸἼΛΤΌΣ msn: bon Mn wigs AD Nb

4 aT OMT) DA ba roe ὩΣ

6 yen] WEN sepin TiN ελθτι NP

"EN ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ 1 λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν Θεόν, καὶ Θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος.

Οὗτος ἣν ἐν ἀρχῇ πρὸς τὸν 2 Θεόν.

Πάντα Ov αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ 8 χωρὶς αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ ἕν ὃ γέγονεν [or, ἕν. ὃ γέγονέν ἐν].

Ἔν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν, καὶ ἡ ζωὴ ἣν 4

τὸ φῶς τῶν ἀνθρώπων.

Καὶ τὸ φῶς ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ φαίνει, 6 καὶ ἡ σκοτίᾳ αὐτὸ οὐ κατέλα-

βεν,

[4

θ ὈΠΓΘΝ maa mds was aaa soni fois

79M MII. ΝᾺ NIN ὩΞ5 s17N0 W325 ΠΝ πτὸρ εὐπατὸς

8 ἜΝ 9D THN MANS ΝΗῚ ΝΙῸΣ ΣῚΡ

g-bob “Sen ΠΌΣΙΝ PDpisH-Oe NZ AT DIN

10 AAD HsH-byy msn pbiva pinsan ND D>ism odisn

11 HbR) > ὝΣΝ ΤΟΝ RD NA :anbap ND baw

iad το τ] 9 ἸῸΝ D"DON IT} bob nbn pa mind ‘Howe pogo

12

13 "ah YEMeN> OR awan panbis prtbyarpe ἊΞ

14 jue) wa ΓΤ) "35 sins2 Hine nin pina TONS] May MT Ἰ5

ISN IPM MP WyQ BTM "WR NIN OT mA MeNe

yea sbi na ND ἜΝ

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

᾿Εγένετο ἄνθρωπος ἀπεσταλμέ- 6

νος παρὰ Θεοῦ, ὄνομα αὐτῷ ᾿Ιωάνης.

Οὗτος ἦλϑεν εἰς μαρτυρίαν, ἵνα 7 μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα πάντες πιστεύσωσιν δι᾿ αὐτοῦ.

Οὐκ ἦν ἐκεῖνος τὸ φῶς, ἀλλ᾽ ἵνα 8 μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός.

Ἦν τὸ φῶς τὸ ἀληϑινόν, ὃ φωτί- 9 ζει πάντα ἄνϑρωπον, ἐρχύ- μενον εἰς τὸν κόσμον.

Ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ ἦν, καὶ ὁ κόσμος Ov αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ ὁ κύσμος αὐτὸν οὐκ ἔγνω.

Εἰς τὰ ἴδια ἦλϑεν, καὶ οἱ ἴδιοι αὐτὸν οὐ παρέλαβον.

“Ὅσοι δὲ ἔλαβον αὐτόν, ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς ἐξουσίαν τέκνα Θεοῦ γενέσϑαι, τοῖς πιστεύουσιν εἰς τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ"

ot οὐκ ἐξ αἱμάτων οὐδὲ ἐκ 18

᾿ ϑελήματος σαρκὺς οὐδὲ ϑελήματος ἀνδρός, ἀλλ᾽ ἐ Θεοῦ ἐγεννήϑησαν.

Καὶ ὁ λόγος σὰρξ ἐγένετο, καὶ 14 ἐσκήνωσεν ἐν ἡμῖν, καὶ ἐϑεα- σάμεϑα τὴν δόξαν αὐτοῦ, δόξαν ὡς μονογενοῦς παρὰ πατρός, πλήρης χάριτος καὶ ἀληϑείας.

Ἰωάνης μαρτυρεῖ περὶ αὐτοῦ, 15

καὶ κέκραγεν λέγων “Οὗτος pay γ

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 75

SUNN NBT Dd ἼὩΝ ἣν ὃν εἶπον [W.and Η.: ὁ sb-pip "D> ἘΡΗ man εἰπών] ὁ ὀπίσω μου ἐρχόμε- al voc ἔμπροσϑέν pov γέγονεν"

OTe πρῶτός μου Hy.”

16 SOM ἼΣΞ5 ὭΣΤ ἽΝ 8 Ὁ Ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ πληρώματος αὐτοῦ 16 ἐ ἼΌΤΙ ΤΣ ἡμεῖς πάντες ἐλάβομεν, καὶ

ι χάριν ἀντὶ χάριτος "

17 ΓΙΣΌΤ Ξ AWM MVM ἫΞ ὅτι ὁ νόμος διὰ Μωῦσέως ἐδόϑη, 17

ey ANE MART Tom , ἡ χάρις καὶ ἡ ἀλήϑεια διὰ ἱ : mean sau Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ ἐγένετο. 18 BIN ΝΣ απ DYNAN MN | Θεὸν οὐδεὶς ἑώρακεν wore’ 18 “WX TMT jan pis ὁ μονογενὴς υἱός [ W. and H.: PTI WAM ARM pw μονογενὴς Θεὸς], ὁ ὧν εἰς

τὸν κόλπον τοῦ πατρός, ἐκεῖ- νος ἐξηγήσατο.

THE APOCALYPSE.

The Apocalypse differs in temper and style very strikingly. from the fourth Gospel and the first Epistle of John. This fact has divided modern critics who reject the traditional view of the iden- tity of authorship into two hostile camps—the one contending for the genuineness of the Gospel,’ the other with equal force for that of the Apocalypse.’

1 So Schleiermacher and his followers, Neander, Liicke, Bleek, De Wette, Meyer, also Ewald and Diisterdieck. Most of them are disposed to assign the Apocalypse to the mysterious “ Presbyter” John, whose very existence is doubtful.

2 So Baur, Renan, and the whole Tiibingen and Leyden schools, and their followers in England (Davidson, and the author of “Supernatural Religion”), who defend the Apocalypse as the genuine work of one of the three pillars of the Jewish Christian party described by Paul (Gal. ii.), while they surrender the Gospel as an ideal poem of an anonymous genius of the second century,

76 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

The Apocalypse is as vehement and warlike as the polemic Epistles of Paul. We hear the battle ery and the shouts of victory." It is the rolling of thunder from the Son of Thunder.* But the Gospel is as sharp and uncompromising in drawing the con- trast between Christ and his enemies. On the other hand, the Apocalypse has pauses of repose and an- thems of peace. What can be more soothing and calming than the description of the heavenly Jeru- salem ?

The Apocalypse, moreover, has a stronger Hebrew coloring, and departs further from classical Greek, than any book of the New Testament.* But this does not arise from ignorance; on the contrary, with all the irregularities and solecisms, the author shows a remarkable command of the Greek vocabulary and syntax.‘ The Hebraizing character is the natu-

1 The words “war” and “to make war,” πόλεμος and πολεμέω, occur more frequently in the Apocalypse than in any other book of the New Test. See ii. 16; ix. 7,9; xi. 7; xii. 7, 175; xili. 5,7; xvi. 14; xvii. 14; xix. 11, 19; xx. 8.

2“ Un éternel roulement de tonnerre sort du tréne.... Une sorte de liturgie divine se poursuit sans fin” (Renan, L’A ntechrist, p. 381).

3 W. H. Guillemard (Hebraisms in the Greek Testament, 1879, p. 116) says: “The deviations from grammatical correctness in the Apocalypse are so violent and so astonishing as to defy explanation. Some few of them may be traceable to Hebraic influences. The style of St. John in the Gospel and Epistles is so remarkably pure—so comparatively free from Hebraism, or non-classical words and forms; so much more like the lan- guage of the best Greek authors—that these peculiarities are all the more perplexing. They have given rise to innumerable speculations, ancient and modern; but no satisfactory explanation of them has hitherto been found.” Guillemard’s judgment of the Greek of John’s Gospel is incorrect. See above, p. 67.

* The most striking apparent irregularity occurs in i, 4; ἀπὸ Ὁ ἊΝ

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. TT

ral result of the prophetical contents and the close affinity to the books of Daniel and Ezekiel. The classical Greek offered no precedent to this species of literature. On the other hand, the Greek of the fourth Gospel, although much purer in form, is yet, as we have already seen, profoundly Hebrew in spirit, and the absence of solecisms arises from the avoidance of idiomatic expressions.

The difference between the two books, therefore, lies more on the surface than in the deep. It is largely neutralized by a striking agreement in lan- guage and thought, especially in the doctrine of Christ, who is in both styled Logos, and represented as the atoning Lamb and the conquering Lion, combining gentleness and strength, innocence and majesty in perfect harmony. The resemblance is admitted by the master of the Tiibingen school, who calls the fourth Gospel the Apocalypse spir-

καὶ ὁ ἦν Kai ὁ ἐρχόμενος, “from Him who is and who was and who is to

come.” But this is evidently a periphrasis of the divine name MM. (comp. Exod. iii. 14, Sept.: ἐγώ εἰμι Ὃ ὭΝ, and in the same verse Ὁ ἊΝ

ἀπέσταλκέ με πρὸς ὑμᾶς), and the nominative reflects his eternal un- — changeableness; hence we need neither insert τοῦ with Erasmus and the textus receptus (against the authority of δὲ AC P), nor supply τοῦ λεγο- μένου before ὁ ὦν. The great cod. B (cod. Vat. 1209) does not contain the Apoc.; but B of the Apoc. (cod. Vat. 2066) has the passage, and reads ϑεοῦ (OY) before ὁ ὦν. Other Hebraisms are more easy, and not con- fined to the Apocalypse, as ὀνόματα (names), for persons (iii. 4); πολεμεῖν pera (ὩΣ mm>3), instead of κατά, to make war against (ii. 16); ψυχὴ ζωῆς (for ζῶσαν = men WD), “a living soul” (xvi. 3). Comp. for further particulars the most recent discussion of this subject by Dr. William Lee, in his Com, on the Revel. (1882, in Speaker’s Com.), pp. 454- 464, Lee accepts the identity of authorship of the fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse,

78 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

itualized or transfigured.' He thinks that only a post-apostolic writer could rise to such a superior height. But why not much rather John himself? If we assume that nearly a generation intervened between the composition of the Apocalypse (A.D. 68 or 69) and that of the Gospel (about A.D. 90), the identity of authorship comes certainly within the reach of literary possibilities, and is not without analogies. What a difference between the first and the second part of Goethe’s Faust, the undoubted productions of one and the same poet—the one heated by the fiery passions of his youth, the other reflecting the calm serenity of his old age. Similar differences in style may be noted in Isaiah, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, and nearly all writers of great genius and long experience.

WorDS PECULIAR TO THE APOCALYPSE (6. 150 in all):

᾿Αβαδδών (Hebrew V7, destruc-| the abyss, explained by the Greek tion), the name of the angel of ἀπολλύων, the destroyer, ix. 11.

1 Baur, Die Evangelien, p. 380. “ Man kann mit Recht sagen, das vierte Evangelium sei die vergeistigte Apokalypse.” And in his Gesch. der christl. Kirche, vol. i. p. 147, he says: “Man kann nur die tiefe Genialitat und feine Kunst bewundern, mit welcher der Evangelist die Elemente, welche vom Stand- punkt der Apokalypse auf den freiern und héhern des Evangeliums hiniiber- leiteten, in sich aufgenommen hat, um die Apokalypse zum Evangelium zu vergeistigen. Nur vom Standpunkt des Evangeliums aus ldsst sich das Ver- hdltniss, in das sich der Verfasser desselben zu der A pokalypse setzte, richtig begreifen.” Weiss turns this confession against Baur, and says most admirably (Leben Jesu, i. 101): “Ja, das Evangelium ist die vergeistigte Apokalypse, aber nicht weil ein Geistesheros des zweiten Jahrhunderts dem Apokalyptiker gefolgt ist, sondern weil der Donnersohn der Apokalypse unter der Leitung des Geistes und unter den gottlichen Fiihrungen zum Mystiker verklart und herangereift ist, in dem die Flammen der Jugend zut Gluth ewer heiligen Liebe herabgeddmpft sind,”

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

τὸ ἼΑλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ (Westcott and Hort; τὸ ἄλφα καὶ τὸ w, Tisch- endorf, ed. viii.), “ The Alpha and the Omega” (the first and the last letters in the Greek alphabet), or the Beginning and the End. A name applied to God or Christ, as a symbol of eternal divinity, three times—i. 8; xxi. 6; xxii. 13 (in the text. rec. also i, 11); comp. a similar designation of Jehovah (“the first and the last”), Isa. xli. 4; xliv. 6.

ἀλληλούϊα, alleluia (Hebrew F742 217), ὃ. 6. praise ye Jehovah, xix. 1, 3, 4, 6. Comp. Ps. civ. 35,

ἀπολλύων, Apollyon (7. 6. Destroy- er), ix. 11.

ἄρκος (so Tischend., W. and Hort, for ἄρκτος of the text, rec.), a bear, xiii. 2.

βασανισμός, torment, ix. 5; xiv. 11; xviii. 7, 10, 15.

Barpaxoc, frog, xvi. 13.

βήρυλλος, beryl (a precious stone of sea-green color), xxi. 20.

βιβλαρίδιον, a little book, x. 2, 8, 9, 10. In ver. 8, W. and H. read βιβλίον.

βότρυς, cluster (of grapes), xiv. 18,

βύσσινος, byssine, of fine linen, xviii. 12, 16; xix. 8 (βύσσος, fine linen, occurs xviii. 12 in text. rec. for βύσσινος, and also in Luke xvi. 19).

δράκων, dragon, xii. 3, 4, 7, 18, 16, 17; xiii. 2, 4, 11; xvi. 13; xx. 2.

éyxpiw, to anoint, 111, 18.

ἐκκεντέω, to pierce, i. 7 (also John xix. 37).

ἐλεεινός, miserable, 111, 17 (the com-

79

par. ἐλεεινότεροι in 1 Cor. xv, 19).

ἐνδόμησις, building, xxi. 18,

ἑξακόσιοι, six hundred, xiii. 18.

ἴασπις, jasper, iv. 3.

κατάϑεμα, a curse (for the text. rec, κατανάϑεμα), xxii. 3.

κατασφραγίζω, to seal, v. 1.

καῦμα, heat, vii. 16; xvi. 9.

κεράννυμι (κεραννύω), to mix (wine with water), to pour out, to fill (a cup with the wine already pre- pared), xiv. 10; xviii. 6.

κριϑή, barley, vi. 6.

κρυσταλλίζω, to be as crystal, xxi. ΤΣ,

κρύσταλλος, crystal, iv. 6; xxii. 1.

κυκλόϑεν, round about, iv. 3, 4,8; v. 11,

λιβανωτός, censer, viii. 3, 5,

λιπαρός, dainty, xviii. 14.

μαζός, breast (for μαστός), i. 18,

pappapoc, marble, xviii. 12,

μασσάομαι, to gnaw, xvi. 10.

μηρός, thigh, xix. 16.

ὅμιλος, company, xviii. 17.

ὅρμημα, violence, xviii. 21.

ὄρνεον, bird, xviii. 2; xix. 17, 21.

οὐρά, tail, ix. 10,19; xii. 4.

πάρδαλις, leopard, xiii. 2.

περιδέω, to bind about, xi. 44.

ποδήρης, garment down to the foot (χιτών), i. 18.

πολεμέω, to make war, ii. 16; xii. 7: xiii. 4; xvii. 14; xix. 11 (only once besides in Jas. iv. 2).

πύρινος, of fire, ix. 17.

πυρρός, red, vi. 4; xii. 3.

ῥέδα, chariot, xviii. 13.

ῥυπαρεύομαι, to be filthy, xxii, 11.

σαλπιστῆς, trumpeter, xviii, 22.

80 THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

σάπφειρος, sapphire, xxi. 19. φαρμακεύς, φαρμακός, sorcerer, xxi, σάρδιος, σάρδιον, sardius, iv. 3 (foi | 8, 15 σάρδινος). xxi. 20, χαλκηδών, chalcedony, xxi. 19. σαρδόνυξ, sardonyx, xxi. 20. xAtapoc, lukewarm, iii. 16. σεμίδαλις, fine flour, xviii. 13. χἕς Ξε ἑξακόσιοι ἑξήκοντα ἕξ, six σίδηρος, iron, xviii. 12. hundred and sixty-six, xiii. 18. σμάραγδος, emerald, xxi. 19. The mystical number of the στρῆνος, luxury, xviii. 3. beast. Irenzus already mentions σφάζω, σφάττω, to slay, v.6,9,12;| another reading, 616. It is re- vi. 4,9; xiii. 3,8; xviii. 24 (also| markable that both numbers give 8 John iii. 12). the name Nero (n) Cesar (666= ταλαντιαῖος (adj.), weighing a tal-| the Hebrew SOP 9°73, 616=the ent, xvi. 21. Latin Nero Cesar). τόξον, bow, vi. 2. χοῖνιξ, measure, vi. 6. τοπάζιον, topaz, xxi. 20. χρυσόλιϑος, chrysolite, xxi. 20. ὑάκινϑος, jacinth, xxi. 20. χρυσόπρασος, chrysoprase, xxi. 20, ὑάλινος, of glass, iv. 6; xv. 2. χρυσόω, to deck, xvii. 4; xviii. 16. ὕαλος, glass, xxi. 18, 21. Q, Omega, i. 8; xxi.6; xxii. 18.

THE EVIDENTIAL VALUE OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE GREEK TESTAMENT.

The idiosyncrasies of the New Testament writers furnish a strong argument for the apostolic author- ship. They differ in vocabulary and style, as well as in the depth and power of thought, from all the preceding and all the succeeding authors. The Christian Church has always felt this, and hence has given to the New Testament a ΑΟΘΕΡΙΨΆΘΩΝ isolation among religious books.

The Apostolic Fathers, so called (Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Ignatius), and the Apologists of the second century (Justin Martyr and others), be long to another generation of Christians; their Greek has no more the informing Hebrew spirit and coloring of men born and bred on the 501] of

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 81

the old dispensation; they allude to secular and ecclesiastical surroundings which did not exist in the apostolic age, and altogether they breathe a dif- ferent atmosphere. The epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, and that of Polycarp to the Philippians, come nearest to the epistles of Paul and John, but even they are separated from them by a very great distance. Barnabas, Ignatius, Hermas, Papias, Jus- tin Martyr are still further off, and bear no com- parison with the apostles and evangelists. As to the apocryphal, compared with the canonical, Gos- pels, the difference between them is as between night and day."

No transition in the history of the Church is so sudden, abrupt, and radical as that from the apos- tolic to the post-apostolic age. They are separated by a clear and sharp line of demarcation. The Chris- tian spirit is the same in kind, yet with an astonish- ing difference in degree; it is the difference between inspiration and illumination, between creative genius and faithful memory, between the original voice and the distant echo, between the clear gushing fountain from the rock and the turbid stream. God himself has established an impassable gulf between his own life-giving word and the writings of mortal men, that future ages might have a certain guide and standard in finding the way of salvation. The apostolic age is the age of miracles, and the New Testament is the life and light of all subsequent ages of the church.

1 The style and vocabulary of the Didache, first published in 1883, come nearest the Greek of the N.T. See Schaff, The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, N. Y., 3d ed. 1889, pp. 95-113.

CHAPTER SECOND.

MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

Literature on the Sources of the Teat and on Teatual Criticism of the New Testament.

I. PROLEGOMENA TO THE CRITICAL EDITIONS.

Jo. Jac. WETSTBIN: Ἢ Καινὴ Διαϑήκη. Novum Testamentum Grecum editionis recepte cum lectionibus variantibus, etc. Amstel. 1751-52, 2 tom, fol. Prolegomena in tom. i. pp. 1-222; tom. ii. pp. 3~15, 449-454, 741- 743.

Jo. Jac. GriesBacu: Novum Testamentum Grece. Ed. secunda. Hale Sax. et Lond. 1796-1806, 2 vols, ϑνο. Ed. tertiam emend. et auctam cur. David Schulz (vol. i. Berolini, 1827). Prafationes et Prolegomena (vol. i. pp. iii.-Ivi., i-cxxvii.). Also his Symbole Critice (1785-93), with his Meletemata, and Commentarius Criticus in Textum Grecum N, Τ. (1798 and 1811).

I, Mart. Auaustin. Scuoiz: N.7.Gr. Textum ad fidem testium criti- corum recensuit, etc. Lips, 1830-36, 2 vols. 4to. Prolegg. vol. i. pp. i.—clxxii. ; vol. ii. pp.ilxiii, Also his Biblisch-Kritische Reise, Leipzig u. Sorau, 1823.

Car. LACHMANN: Novum Testamentum Grace et Latine. Berolini, 1842 and 1850, 8vo; Prefatio, vol. i. pp. v.-lvi.; vol. ii. pp. iii—xxvi. Comp. also Lachmann’s article in explanation and defence of his critical system, in the Theol. Studien und Kritiken for 1830, No. IV. pp. 817-845.

AENOTH. (Germ. LopecoTT) Frip. Const. TiscHeENDORF: Novum Testamentum Grace. Ad antiquissimos testes denuo recensuit, apparatum criticum omni studio perfectum apposuit, commentationem isagogicam pra- tecuit. Editio septima. Lips. 1859, 2 vols. 8vo. Prolegomena, vol. i. pp. Xiii-cclxxviii. The text of this edition is superseded by the editio octava critica maior (Lips. 1869-72, 2 vols.). The new Prolegomena, which the author did not live to finish, have been prepared by Dr. CAsPAR Reni Grecory, with the aid of Dr. Ezra Aspor. The first Part was pub- lished in June, 1884, at Leipsic (440 pages).

SAMURL PRIDEAUX TREGELLES: The Greek New Testament, edited from Ancient Authorities, with the Latin Version of Jerome, from the Codex

MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 83

Amiatinus. London, published in parts from 1857 to 1879, 1 vol. 4to. The 7th part (published in 1879, after the death of Dr. Tregelles) contains the Prolegomena, with Addenda and Corrigenda, compiled and edited by Rey. Dr. Hort and Rev. A. W. Streane. Other works of Tregelles, see below, sub IT.

Henry Atrorp: The Greek Testament. London, 6th ed. 1868, etc.; Prolegomena, vol. i, chs. vi. and vii. pp. 73-148, See also vols, ii.—iv.

Westcott and Hort: Jntroduction and Appendix to their New Testa- ment in Greek, forming a separate vol., Cambridge and London, 1881. Amer. ed. (from English plates), New York (Harpers), 1882. Dr. Hort prepared the Introd. and Append. ‘They are of the greatest value.

II. SpecraL Works on TExTUAL CRITICISM.

Sam. Prip. TREGELLES: An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, with Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles. London (Bagster & Sons), 1854. By the same: Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Test. London, 1860. This is a separate reprint of the first part of the fourth volume of Horne’s Jntrod., 10th ed, London, 1856; with “ Additions” and “Postscript” in the 11th ed. 1860, 14th ed. 1877. Very valuable. .

SAMUEL Davipson: A Treatise on Biblical Criticism, Exhibiting a Sys- tematic View of that Science. Edinb. and London, 1852, 2 vols. The sec- ond vol, treats of the New Test.

As. KuUENEN: Critices et Hermeneutices N. T. Lineamenta. L. Bat. 1858.

Ep. Reuss: Bibliotheca Novi Testamenti Greci. Brunsvige, 1872 (pp. 313). The most complete list of all the printed editions of the Greek Testament, supplemented in this book. See Appendix I. 497 sqq.

Fr. H. AMproseE ScrivENerR: A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament, 1861; 2d ed., thoroughly. revised, Cambridge and London, 1874 (626 pages); 3d ed. 1883 (751 pages). Upon the whole the best separate work on the subject in the English language. Comp. also Scrivener’s Six Lectures on the Text of the New Testament, Cambridge and London, 1875; his Collation of about Twenty Greek MSS. of the Holy Gospels, deposited in the British Museum, etc., with a Critical Introduction, Cambridge, 1853; his Exact Transcript of the Codex Augiensis, to which is added a Full Collation of Fifty Manuscripts, with a Critical Introduc- tion (the latter also issued separately), Cambridge, 1859; and Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus with the Received Text of the N. T. 2d ed, 1867.

Ezra Aspor: Notes on Scrivener’s “ Plain Introduction,” etc., edited by Dr. Jos.-H. Thayer. Boston and New York, 1885. (Points out numer- ous errors in Scrivener.)

84 MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.

THOMAS SHELDON GREEN: A Course of Developed Criticism on Passages of the N.T. materially affected by Various Readings. London (S. Bagster & Sons), no date, but published in 1856.

C. E. Hammonp: Outlines of Textual Criticism Applied to the New Testament. Oxford, 1872; 2d ed. 1876; 3d ed. 1880; 5th ed. 1890.

Epwarp C. ΜΙΤΟΗΕΙΙ͂,: Critical Handbook to the New Testament. London and Andover, 1880 (the part on textual criticism, pp. 67-143, revised by Ezra Ansor); French translation, Paris, 1881. Very brief.

GerorRGE E. MERRILL: The Story of the Manuscripts. Boston, 1881.

Abbé J. P. P. Martin: Introduction ἃ la Critique Textuelle du Nouveau Testament. Paris,1883-86,6 vols. Lithographed, with numerous fac-similes,

BenJAMIN Β. WARFIELD: An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. London and New York, 1886 (225 pp.).

Ill. CriricaAL INTRODUCTIONS TO THE NEw TESTAMENT.

The Critical Introductions usually incorporate an account of the written and printed text of the New Test., and discuss the principles of criticism. So ΕἸΟΗΉΟΕΝ, MIcHAgLIs (ed. by HERBERT Marsu, Lond. 1823, 6 vols.), Hve, De Werrr, BLEEK (4th ed. 1886), Reuss (6th ed. 1888), HOLTZMANN (1885,